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受制裁國家的加密貨幣:被限制國家的比特幣與穩定幣應用

Kostiantyn TsentsuraSep, 12 2025 11:37
受制裁國家的加密貨幣:被限制國家的比特幣與穩定幣應用

受制裁國家於2024年收到158億美元加密貨幣佔全球非法數位資產交易39%,顯示加密貨幣已由實驗性科技演變為國際制裁下經濟生存的關鍵基礎建設。這股上升趨勢主要受伊朗資本外流及俄羅斯立法推動國家認可的加密貨幣應用所驅動,凸顯傳統金融戰正被去中心化技術重塑。

這種規模的採用史無前例。單單是伊朗,2024年的加密貨幣外流就激增70%,達到41.8億美元,而俄羅斯光在2023年第四季至2024年第一季便完成了490億美元的加密貨幣支付。北韓的 Lazarus Group 於2024年竊取超過13.4億美元加密貨幣,佔全球加密貨幣失竊總額的61%。這些數字不只是統計數據,而是對自二戰以來維繫全球金融穩定的國際制裁機制的根本挑戰。其意義超越純粹的交易量——現時受制裁司法管轄區掌控近60%的制裁相關加密資產價值,而過去這現象僅見於個別實體。

這顯示規避制裁的手法已由零星犯罪變成系統性、國家層面上採用加密貨幣。傳統制裁執法機制原本依賴中介可受指令限制資金流動,如今面對以程式碼而非機構規定交易有效性的去中心化體系,明顯跟不上趨勢。

故事始於現實:現代制裁主要透過切斷被針對國家與以美元為核心的全球金融體系聯繫,及SWIFT等機構來奏效。自2022年2月俄羅斯入侵烏克蘭以來,西方啟動了“金融核彈”——將俄主要銀行踢出SWIFT及凍結中央銀行資產。伊朗自2018年、委內瑞拉自2019年、北韓已數十年,均被實施類似措施。

這些制裁帶來切身難題:被制裁國家怎樣支付進口、出口怎樣收款、市民如何接觸全球金融服務?加密貨幣部分解決了難題。比特幣於無中央權威網絡營運,不會封鎖用戶。Tether這類穩定幣提供美元計價價值,毋須進入美國銀行體系。以太坊更透過智能合約令資金自動執行複雜交易。雖然區塊鏈交易不可隱形,卻繞過西方政府容易控制的銀行渠道。

不同受制裁國家的加密貨幣變革不一。俄羅斯已發展國家級礦業機構及籌備在莫斯科、聖彼得堡設立交易所。伊朗則利用低電費運作龐大比特幣礦場,並與俄方合作研發黃金作後盾的穩定幣。北韓則透過 Lazarus Group 工業化偷竊,加密貨幣變成開發武器的主要財源之一。

委內瑞拉在政府 Petro 加密貨幣失敗後,人民轉向 Tether 作抗通脹工具。文章分析俄羅斯、伊朗、北韓、委內瑞拉、古巴等地六個案例,反映加密貨幣採用受制裁嚴重程度、技術能力、政策取態所影響。同時評估加密貨幣能否成為有效規避制裁的工具,還是僅於嚴鈴經濟限制下帶來些微幫助。證據顯示,雖加密貨幣確提供了避制裁手段,但規模、使用便利性、與監管反制有明顯限制。

了解全球制裁

現代經濟制裁代表了國際關係由軍事征服逐步演化成金融戰爭。現行體系主要依賴美國財政部屬下外國資產控制辦公室及歐盟限制措施,利用美元支配全球金融體系來達致外交目標而毋須動用軍事介入。理解這個體系運作方式——以及加密貨幣如何產生漏洞——正是掌握數位資產成為規避制裁策略核心原因的關鍵。

制裁有效性依賴三大支柱:美元主導、銀行中介及網絡效應。美元佔全球央行儲備58%、外滙交易90%,令不經美國體系就難以進行國際交易。

這造成經濟學家所謂「美元陷阱」:即使非美交易,也經常須經美元結算,參與方隨時受美國法律及制裁執法規管。銀行中介進一步強化美國威力,透過代理銀行網絡運作。例如伊朗公司付中國供應商,資金或經多家銀行——伊朗國內銀行、歐洲代理銀行、中國代理銀行、再到中國收款行——每一間都需符合制裁要求,一旦涉及被制裁實體,任一中間行可阻截款項,相當於給西方銀行全球執法權。

網絡效應令規避難度倍增。2022年美國制裁俄國銀行後,不單中止美俄直接交易,還令全球配合俄羅斯業務銀行要承受合規風險,幾乎令俄羅斯徹底被逐出全球金融體系。次級制裁令範圍更廣,非西方銀行如不配合美國制裁,隨時失去西方市場准入。

外國資產控制辦公室是全球最先進制裁單位,2025年「特別指定國民及被封鎖人員清單」已涉過11,000名個人及實體。加密貨幣年代,OFAC執法大幅擴展——2024年有13起涉及加密地址指定案例,為七年來第二高,且當年加密相關罰款達4.3億美元,較上年升40%。歐盟則以不同法規實現類似效果。針對俄羅斯的第16輪制裁禁令,首次擴展至白俄羅斯,並由《加密資產市場監管條例》收緊對制裁要求的合規。

2024年12月MiCA全面實施後,全球最完善加密監管走上正軌,並對與第三國交易的服務提供者施加更嚴格審查。SWIFT作為制裁重要支柱,每日處理4,200萬宗訊息,連接逾11,000金融機構遍佈200國家。自2012年針對伊朗及2022年俄羅斯起,SWIFT中斷等於基本上切斷該國金融機構全球聯繫。俄國被逐出SWIFT,即時推動轉用其他系統,現時莫斯科交易所54%交易以人民幣進行,俄方另行建立SPFS聯網,已接駁20國、550間機構。

歷史先例證明,加密貨幣出現前,制裁規避有其威力與局限。90年代伊拉克紀錄,受監管人道石油出口計劃允許石油買賣達540億美元,但透過空殼公司及回佣手法,逃避制裁的規模以十億計。伊朗自2012-2015年制裁期間,靠複雜黃金貿易網絡,把石油收入轉成約200億美元黃金,經土耳其轉口於杜拜等地售出換回硬貨幣。

傳統規避策略需鑽監管空隙、靠友好中介人、以複雜持有人結構掩飾終極受益人。這要求極高技術與廣泛合作網絡,過程成本高、延誤多。最關鍵的是,他們總離不開傳統金融體系,只要執法進步及國際合作擴大,就容易被偵測及打擊。金融行動特別組織已成國際打擊洗黑錢及制裁協調的主力。

FATF於2019年對虛擬資產訂下「旅行規則」,要求服務提供者對超過1,000美元的交易互通用戶資料,惟落實困難。雖然截至2025年,117個司法管轄區中已有85個立法實施旅行規則,FATF於2025年6月發表的最新檢討仍指出全球執行... Content: 仍然「落後」,許多司法管轄區在進行基本風險評估及監管檢查時仍然面對困難。

Travel Rule 面臨的技術挑戰,反映了整個加密貨幣領域在執法上的更廣泛困難。各國系統割裂,缺乏互通性,為合法交易帶來合規障礙,但對制裁執行的實際效用有限。先進的規避技術——包括隱私幣、混幣服務和去中心化交易所——往往能完全繞過 Travel Rule 規定,令監管機構不得不針對技術本身,而非其濫用行為,採取更強硬的執法策略。G7 和 G20 已加強協調,應對藉加密貨幣逃避制裁的問題。

2024年9月,G7 發佈有關打擊俄羅斯制裁逃避的聯合指引,當中包括具體加密貨幣相關指標和更嚴格的出口管制執行措施。G20 的加密資產政策執行路線圖亦支持國際貨幣基金與金融穩定委員會的聯合指引,並計劃於2025年底全面檢討落實情況。然而,政策協調仍受到一個持續挑戰:加密貨幣網絡跨國運作,而監管權力依然以國家為主。美元在執行制裁上既帶來依賴,也創造出加密貨幣可利用的漏洞。

雖然美元繼續佔據主導地位——佔全球超過一半的國際支付,以及佔全球央行儲備58%——但受制裁國家積極發展替代方案。中俄雙邊貿易已達2,400億美元,當中九成以人民幣結算,完全繞過美元。mBridge 跨境數碼支付項目每年處理達1.9億美元,展示了不依賴美元的結算系統在技術上行得通。這些發展絕不只是技術替代,更預示著國際貨幣秩序可能出現範式轉變。如果大型經濟體能在國際貿易中完全避開美元主導的金融體系,現代制裁的執行基礎就開始動搖。

加密貨幣加速了這一趨勢,為替代支付系統提供技術基礎設施,且減低對過去由西方金融機構主導的合規依賴。

制裁抗壓型支付基建的出現創造了一個自我強化的循環。隨著傳統金融機構為免受罰而落實更嚴格的合規措施,受制裁國家的合資格用戶更難獲得基本金融服務。這推動了替代系統,包括加密貨幣的採用,進一步增加交易量並提升基建質素,無論合法還是非法用戶都因此受惠。最終形成了一個日益龐大的平行金融生態圈,基本上運作於傳統監管視野之外。

案例研究:制裁經濟下的加密貨幣

俄羅斯:國家主導的數碼資產基建

俄羅斯在制裁下對加密貨幣的政策,可謂全球最成熟的國家級應用方案——由一開始的完全敵視,發展至傳統支付渠道受阻後的策略性擁抱。2022年2月入侵烏克蘭,引發前所未有西方制裁,令主要俄羅斯銀行被剔出SWIFT系統、中央銀行儲備被凍結,急需其他支付手段——加密貨幣在其中發揮作用。

俄羅斯採用加密貨幣的規模極為驚人。僅於2023年第四季至2024年第一季,俄羅斯機構已處理490億美元的加密貨幣交易。有分析估計,2024年該國加密交易總量高達1.38萬億美元,位列全球前五。這與俄羅斯過往對加密資產敵視的做法形成強烈對比——就算在2021年,政府還在討論刑事處罰加密貨幣用途。2024年立法變動則正式確認了這一轉向。

2024年8月立法將加密貨幣挖礦合法化,11月修例更批准國際支付可用加密貨幣。這些不只屬監管調整,更是國家層面的明確政策——用數碼資產建立抗制裁金融基建。過去是最大反對者的俄羅斯央行,現時亦負責監管加密貨幣挖礦及授權跨境加密支付的組織。挖礦已成為核心戰略,借助國內豐富且廉價的能源,開採「處女比特幣」——即沒有交易記錄,難以追蹤至制裁違規活動。俄羅斯比特幣挖礦規模居全球前列,西伯利亞地區的嚴寒降低冷卻成本,水電亦令電價極低。

更具爭議性的,是在德涅斯特河沿岸、頓巴斯、阿布哈茲等「灰色地帶」大規模挖礦,這些地區缺乏國際監管,部分用電成本低至每千瓦時0.005美元。Garantex 交易所的案例正反映了俄羅斯加密業務的持續和規模。雖然被美國OFAC及英國金融制裁執行處制裁,Garantex 自2018年創立後仍處理超過1,000億美元交易。

2025年3月,執法機構針對 Garantex,營運者即時以新公司 Grinex 捲土重來,體現出加密業務更換架構後能迅速重啟的技術便利。俄羅斯「洗黑錢」手法更趨高端,不只單靠簡單加密交易。TGR Group 於2024年12月被制裁,是一個複雜的洗錢集團,利用美國公司架構協助俄羅斯精英處理上億美元資金。

無人機製造商 KB Vostok 則透過加密貨幣售出價值4,000萬美元軍用無人機,並經 Garantex 洗錢以躲避傳統銀行管制。國家發起的區塊鏈項目凸顯俄羅斯對長遠抗制裁基建的展望。Sberbank 在2024年9月推出數字金融資產平台,計劃於2027年前市值達至1萬億盧布(106億美元)。該平台支持大宗商品和其他資產代幣化,用於國際貿易結算,無需依賴傳統銀行體系。莫斯科和聖彼得堡將設立加密貨幣交易所,對準金磚國家貿易,專為在無西方監管下做國際生意而設。

俄羅斯的 SWIFT 替代方案——金融信息傳遞系統(SPFS)目前日益支持加密資產交易,作為繞過制裁的新模式。SPFS 已連接20國、550家機構,並可用多種貨幣(包括數碼資產)結算。與中國跨境銀行支付系統(CIPS)集成提供冗餘,和伊朗雙邊支付合作更進一步繞過傳統代理銀行。近期執法行動也突顯俄羅斯加密網絡的龐大和韌性。2024年9月德國警方於「最後交易行動」中,查封47個無KYC的俄語加密貨幣交易所。

惟歷來打擊令業界轉移到新平台而不是真正終止活動。對於操控受制裁 Cryptex 交易所的 Ivanov,賞金高達1,000萬美元,說明當目標位於「西方治外法權」之下時,維權執法困難重重。

伊朗:能源換幣與資本外逃

伊朗與加密貨幣的關係,反映該國多年來在全面國際制裁下的經驗,不但國家層面有推動政策,民間也出現資本外逃潮,雙方都展示了加密技術對孤立經濟的實際用途。不同於俄羅斯近年才擁抱加密貨幣,伊朗自2019年已積極嘗試推廣,成為首批有系統利用區塊鏈政策的受制裁國家。

伊朗加密策略的根本,是以龐大能源資源經挖礦轉化成可避開銀行封鎖的數碼資產。伊朗佔全球比特幣算力約4.5%,全國有約18萬台挖礦設備,耗電量相當於每年1,000萬桶原油(即佔伊朗總出口的4%)。這種能源轉數位資產的模式,每年可為伊朗央行帶來約10億美元比特幣,以作進口融資。惟挖礦面對基建瓶頸,反映伊朗整體採用的局限。

非法挖礦於高峰期耗電曾達2吉瓦,令全國電力需求增加16%,導致全國31省中有27省遭遇停電。即使如此,伊斯蘭革命衛隊仍特許繼續經營自家礦場,即使全國性停機亦不停業,反映加密貨幣挖礦已成為國家收入關鍵。

伊朗加密貨幣的全民採用,與地緣政治緊張及貨幣貶值直接相關pressures. During 2024, crypto outflows reached $4.18 billion, representing a 70% year-over-year increase that coincided with the Iranian rial losing 37% of its value against the dollar. Sharp outflow spikes occurred during Iran-Israel conflicts on April 14 and October 1, 2024, demonstrating how cryptocurrency serves as a hedge against both currency devaluation and geopolitical risk. The Iranian government's December 2024 decision to halt cryptocurrency exchange withdrawals illustrates the tension between enabling sanctions circumvention and preventing capital flight.

在2024年,加密貨幣資金流出達到41.8億美元,按年增長70%,同時伊朗里亞爾對美元貶值了37%。在2024年4月14日和10月1日的伊朗-以色列衝突期間,資金流出出現了明顯激增,證明加密貨幣成為對抗貨幣貶值及地緣政治風險的對沖工具。伊朗政府於2024年12月決定暫停加密貨幣交易所提款,突顯容許規避制裁和防止資金外流之間的矛盾。

As regional tensions escalated and the rial depreciated rapidly, Iranian authorities moved to prevent cryptocurrency from facilitating massive capital outflows that could destabilize the domestic economy. This action affected 18 million Iranians who hold crypto assets across 300-600 digital exchanges, highlighting the scale of grassroots adoption. Iran's approach to stablecoin adoption reveals sophisticated understanding of cryptocurrency's utility for international trade. Licensed miners are required to surrender mined Bitcoin to the central bank for import purchases, while traders increasingly prefer Tether for settlements due to its dollar stability and resistance to banking sanctions. The development of a joint Iran-Russia gold-backed stablecoin specifically targets cross-border trade settlement outside the dollar system, with technical specifications designed for use in the Astrakhan special economic zone.

隨著區域緊張局勢升級以及里亞爾急速貶值,伊朗當局採取行動,防止加密貨幣成為大規模資金外流的渠道,有可能危及本土經濟穩定。這項措施影響了在300至600間數碼交易所持有加密資產的1,800萬伊朗人,反映草根層面採用的規模。伊朗對穩定幣的應用展現了對加密貨幣於國際貿易中的作用有深刻認識。註冊礦工需將開採得到的比特幣交由央行,用作進口交易,而由於泰達幣(Tether)穩定掛鉤美元而又不受銀行制裁影響,愈來愈多貿易商選用其作結算之用。伊朗與俄羅斯共同開發以黃金為支撐的穩定幣,目標正是非美元體系下的跨境貿易結算,並針對阿斯特拉罕(Astrakhan)經濟特區設計技術規格。

Enforcement actions have illuminated Iran's cryptocurrency ecosystem connections to regional proxy organizations. The Nobitex exchange, Iran's largest with 87% market share and $3 billion in trading volume during 2025, has been linked to transactions with Hamas, IRGC units, and Houthis. TRM Labs traced cryptocurrency flows from Iranian entities to Houthi operations in Yemen, demonstrating how digital assets enable funding of proxy activities across the region.

執法行動揭示伊朗加密貨幣生態系統與區域代理組織的聯繫。Nobitex作為伊朗最大的交易所,市佔率達87%,2025年成交量達到30億美元,曾被發現與哈馬斯、伊朗革命衛隊及胡塞武裝有交易紀錄。TRM Labs追蹤到伊朗實體資金流向葉門胡塞武裝行動,體現數碼資產如何支援地區代理活動的資金供應。

Iran's central bank digital currency initiative, the digital rial, represents efforts to maintain monetary sovereignty while enabling sanctions circumvention. Built on Hyperledger Fabric technology, the digital rial launched retail pilot programs on Kish Island in June 2024. The CBDC leverages Iran's existing Shetab payment network, which processes transactions in under two seconds, providing technical infrastructure that could support broader digital asset adoption. The December 2024 approval of comprehensive cryptocurrency regulations marked Iran's evolution toward formal recognition of digital assets as sanctions circumvention tools.

伊朗央行數碼貨幣計劃(數碼里亞爾)旨在維護貨幣主權同時實現規避制裁。數碼里亞爾基於Hyperledger Fabric技術,並於2024年6月在基什島推出租零售試點項目。該CBDC利用伊朗現有的Shetab支付網絡,交易時間不超過兩秒,為更廣泛的數碼資產應用提供技術基礎。2024年12月通過的全面加密貨幣監管規例,標誌著伊朗正式將數碼資產視為規避制裁的有效工具。

New licensing requirements for mining operations above certain thresholds are designed to capture revenue for the state while providing legal frameworks for continued operations. The regulatory approach contrasts sharply with outright bans in neighboring countries, reflecting Iran's assessment that cryptocurrency provides essential economic benefits despite compliance risks. Recent developments in Iran-Russia payment system integration demonstrate how sanctioned nations are coordinating cryptocurrency adoption. The October 2024 connection of Iran's banking system to Russia's MIR network enables bilateral trade settlement outside SWIFT, while joint development of blockchain-based payment mechanisms could provide comprehensive alternatives to Western financial infrastructure.

新增針對超過特定規模的加密挖礦業務的牌照要求,一方面為國家帶來稅收,另一方面建立合法運作框架。這種監管手法與鄰近國家的全面禁令形成鮮明對比,反映伊朗認為即使有合規風險,加密貨幣依然帶來重要經濟利益。近期伊朗—俄羅斯支付系統整合進展,顯示受制裁國家正聯手協調加密貨幣應用。2024年10月伊朗銀行系統接通俄羅斯MIR網絡,落實非SWIFT體系雙邊貿易結算,雙方亦正共同發展基於區塊鏈的支付機制,為西方金融基建提供全方位替代方案。

North Korea: Industrialized Cryptocurrency Theft

North Korea's approach to cryptocurrency differs fundamentally from other sanctioned nations through its focus on systematic theft rather than adoption for legitimate economic activity. The Lazarus Group, North Korea's primary cyber warfare unit, has industrialized cryptocurrency theft as a revenue generation mechanism that provides significant funding for the country's weapons programs while demonstrating sophisticated technical capabilities that challenge global cybersecurity assumptions.

北韓對加密貨幣的取態與其他受制裁國家根本不同,他們並非以正規經濟活動採納加密貨幣,而是專注鋪天蓋地的大型有組織盜竊。Lazarus Group(拉撒路組織)是北韓的主要網絡戰單位,已將加密貨幣盜竊變成一種產業化收入來源,為該國武器項目提供重要資金,同時展示其對抗全球網絡安全體系的強大技術能力。

The scale of North Korean cryptocurrency theft reached unprecedented levels in 2024, with over $1.34 billion stolen representing 61% of all cryptocurrency theft globally. The February 2025 Bybit exchange hack, resulting in $1.46 billion losses, marked the largest cryptocurrency theft in history and demonstrated Lazarus Group's evolving capabilities. These operations aren't random criminal activities - they represent systematic state-sponsored programs that U.N. experts directly tie to nuclear and missile development funding.

2024年,北韓加密貨幣盜竊規模創下新高,總額超過13.4億美元,佔全球加密貨幣盜竊總數的61%。2025年2月Bybit交易所遭入侵,損失高達14.6億美元,創下史上最大加密盜竊案,反映Lazarus Group技術能力持續提升。這些行動並非單一犯罪事件,而是經過系統化、國家支持的行動,聯合國專家直接將其與核武及導彈研發資金掛鈎。

Lazarus Group's attack methodologies have evolved significantly from early social engineering approaches to sophisticated infiltration techniques targeting cryptocurrency infrastructure. The group's 2024 operations showed particular sophistication in compromising private keys through extended surveillance campaigns and fake employment schemes.

Lazarus Group的攻擊手段與時俱進,由早期的社交工程逐步升級至針對加密基礎設施的複雜滲透技術。2024年,他們特別擅長利用長期監視與偽造求職手法來竊取私鑰。

The KnowBe4 incident, where Lazarus operatives secured employment at a major security company using fake identities, demonstrated willingness to invest months in establishing access to cryptocurrency systems. Attack patterns reveal systematic targeting of centralized exchanges and DeFi protocols that hold large cryptocurrency reserves. Recent major thefts include the $235 million WazirX exchange hack, $100 million Atomic Wallet compromise, and numerous smaller operations that collectively establish North Korea as the dominant threat actor in cryptocurrency crime. Unlike profit-motivated criminals, Lazarus Group operations focus on maximizing overall theft rather than minimizing risk, leading to increasingly bold attacks on well-defended targets. Money laundering infrastructure demonstrates sophisticated understanding of blockchain analytics and cryptocurrency obfuscation techniques.

KnowBe4事件中,Lazarus成員以假身份成功在國際知名安全公司就業,顯示他們願意花費幾個月時間滲透加密系統。攻擊模式揭示他們系統地鎖定持有大量資產的中心化交易平台和DeFi協議。近期大型盜竊事件包括WazirX交易所被盜2.35億美元、Atomic Wallet損失1億美元,以及其他多宗小額案件,合共鞏固北韓在加密犯罪領域的主導威脅地位。有別於以盈利為大前題的犯罪者,Lazarus着重盜竊總額勝於降低風險,故此越發大膽攻擊防守嚴密的目標。他們的洗錢機制反映對區塊鏈分析和資金混淆技術有深厚掌握。

Despite widespread sanctions against mixing services, Tornado Cash usage by North Korean operatives surged 108% in 2024 following the March 2022 hack of the Ronin bridge. The group disperses stolen funds across thousands of addresses using multiple blockchains, with heavy utilization of TRON and USDT for final cash-out stages due to lower transaction fees and reduced regulatory oversight. Attribution techniques developed by blockchain analytics firms provide unprecedented visibility into North Korean operations, enabling law enforcement responses that were impossible with traditional financial crimes.

即使全球對資金混合平台(mixing services)實施制裁,2024年北韓特工使用Tornado Cash的次數仍比前一年激增108%,尤其在2022年3月Ronin橋黑客案後。Lazarus將盜竊資金分散至數千個錢包地址,跨越多條區塊鏈,並善用TRON及USDT作最後現金提取,因其交易費用低及監管寬鬆。區塊鏈分析公司開發出溯源技術,極大提高對北韓行動的透明度,使執法機構作出以往不能做到的回應。

TRM Labs, Chainalysis, and Elliptic use transaction pattern analysis, timing correlations, and infrastructure fingerprinting to attribute attacks to Lazarus Group with high confidence. FBI public service announcements now routinely include specific cryptocurrency addresses and recovery bounties, demonstrating integration of blockchain analytics into traditional law enforcement responses. The revenue destination for stolen cryptocurrency highlights the strategic importance of these operations to North Korea's broader objectives. U.N. Panel of Experts reports estimate that cryptocurrency theft provides significant revenue for weapons development programs, with the Security Council emphasizing how cyber activities enable circumvention of sanctions designed to prevent nuclear proliferation.

TRM Labs、Chainalysis及Elliptic透過交易行為、時間關聯及基建指紋等分析,極高信心度歸咎相關攻擊予Lazarus Group。美國FBI現已定期在公告中列出被盜加密資料地址及懸紅,證明區塊鏈分析已融入傳統執法工作。盜竊所得加密貨幣流向顯示這些行動對北韓整體戰略至關重要。聯合國專家小組報告估計,加密盜竊為武器研發提供龐大資金,安理會則強調網絡活動如何繞過阻止核擴散的制裁措施。

The scale of theft suggests cryptocurrency crime has become a major revenue stream for an isolated regime with limited alternative funding sources. International cooperation in responding to North Korean cryptocurrency theft has improved significantly, with joint operations involving Korean, Japanese, and European authorities. However, the decentralized nature of cryptocurrency systems and North Korea's sophisticated technical capabilities create persistent challenges. Recovery rates for stolen funds remain extremely low at 3.8%, while the group's use of multiple blockchains and privacy tools complicates both prevention and recovery efforts. The Lazarus Group's operations illuminate broader vulnerabilities in cryptocurrency infrastructure that extend beyond North Korean threats. Social engineering attacks that compromise private keys remain highly effective against targets regardless of technical security measures.

大規模盜竊反映加密犯罪已成為北韓這個資金來源有限、與世隔絕政權的主要收入。國際社會應對北韓相關盜竊的合作也已大幅提升,現有韓國、日本、歐洲等聯合行動。不過,加密系統的去中心化本質及北韓高超技術能力持續構成挑戰。被盜資金回收率僅為3.8%,該組織利用多條區塊鏈和隱私工具令預防和追討更見困難。Lazarus Group的操作突顯加密基建的普遍脆弱,不只限於北韓威脅。透過社交工程危及私鑰,一直是無論安全措施如何都極有效的攻擊手法。

The group's success demonstrates that human factors often represent the weakest link in cryptocurrency security, with implications for both individual users and institutional custodians. Recent developments suggest Lazarus Group capabilities continue expanding as cryptocurrency markets grow. The shift from primarily targeting DeFi protocols to major centralized exchanges indicates growing sophistication and ambition. Enhanced targeting of infrastructure providers, including wallet services and blockchain bridges, suggests recognition that upstream attacks can provide access to larger pools of cryptocurrency than individual platform compromises.

該組織的成功證明,人為因素始終是加密資產安全鏈的最薄弱一環,不論對個人用戶還是機構託管亦然。近期趨勢顯示,隨着市場壯大,Lazarus Group能力正在不斷擴充。他們由主要攻擊DeFi協議轉向大型中心化交易所,反映技術更成熟、野心更大。現時針對基建服務供應商(如錢包服務、區塊鏈橋)增強打擊,說明他們明白從源頭攻擊能控制比單一平台更多的加密資產。

Venezuela: Petro Failure and Grassroots USDT Adoption

Venezuela presents a unique case study in cryptocurrency adoption driven by economic necessity rather than sanctions circumvention, though U.S. sanctions against the Venezuelan government created additional pressures that accelerated digital asset adoption. The spectacular failure of the government's Petro cryptocurrency contrasts sharply with organic adoption of Tether as an inflation hedge, demonstrating the difference between state-imposed digital assets and market-driven cryptocurrency usage.

委內瑞拉在加密貨幣採用方面是一個獨特案例,主要由經濟需求推動,而非單純為規避制裁──儘管美國對其政府的制裁亦帶來額外壓力,加快數碼資產普及。政府主導的Petro數碼貨幣慘敗,與民間自發用泰達幣(Tether)作抗通脹工具形成強烈對比,突顯國家強推的加密與市場自然採用間的根本分別。

The Petro cryptocurrency's January 15, 2024 termination marked the end of one of history's most ambitious but unsuccessful state digital asset experiments. Launched in 2018 amid hyperinflation and international sanctions, the Petro was designed to circumvent sanctions while providing a stable store of value backed by oil reserves.

2024年1月15日,Petro加密貨幣正式終止,標誌著史上最雄心勃勃卻極為失敗的國家數碼資產實驗之一告終。Petro於2018年在惡性通脹和國際制裁夾擊下推出,目標既是規避制裁、亦希望憑石油儲備提供穩定價值。

Despite raising $735 million in pre-sales and receiving extensive government promotion, the Petro never achieved meaningful adoption among Venezuelan citizens or businesses. The Petro's failure illustrates fundamental challenges in state-sponsored cryptocurrency adoption. Technical problems included limited wallet availability, complex purchase procedures, and lack

雖然Petro預售曾籌得7.35億美元,加上政府大力推廣,但仍無法在國內市民和企業之間取得實質採用。Petro的失敗,反映國家主導加密貨幣面對的根本挑戰,包括技術問題如錢包選擇有限、購買流程繁瑣等。of merchant acceptance infrastructure. More fundamentally, Venezuelan citizens viewed the Petro as government currency subject to the same political risks that had destroyed the bolívar's value.

商戶接納基礎設施之發展不足。更根本嘅問題係,委內瑞拉公民視Petro為政府貨幣,受相同政治風險影響——而正正呢啲風險摧毀咗玻利瓦爾價值。

The National Assembly's declaration that the Petro represented illegal debt issuance reflected broader political opposition that undermined confidence in government digital currency initiatives. Corruption scandals surrounding the Petro program culminated in the SUNACRIP investigation, where estimates suggest between $3-20 billion disappeared from state oil company accounts through cryptocurrency-related schemes. The arrest of 80 individuals connected to the program demonstrated how state cryptocurrency initiatives can become vehicles for corruption when proper oversight mechanisms are absent. The scandal contributed to the program's termination and influenced subsequent government skepticism toward digital asset initiatives. In contrast to Petro's failure, grassroots Tether adoption has flourished as Venezuelans seek alternatives to hyperinflationary bolivars. Venezuela ranks 18th globally in cryptocurrency adoption according to Chainalysis data, reaching 9th on a per-capita basis with 110% growth in crypto activity during 2024.

國民議會宣佈Petro屬於非法發債,反映咗更廣泛嘅政治反對聲音,削弱咗大家對政府推行數碼貨幣計劃嘅信心。圍繞Petro計劃嘅貪污醜聞最終演變成SUNACRIP調查,有估算指經加密貨幣相關手法,國有油公司賬戶有30至200億美元不翼而飛。80位同計劃有關嘅人員被捕,反映咗當缺乏妥善監管時,國家層面嘅加密貨幣計劃可以成為貪污工具。呢場醜聞亦導致計劃最終終止,亦令政府之後對數碼資產發展保持懷疑。與Petro失敗形成對比,基層對Tether(USDT)採用大行其道,因為市民急需替代惡性通脹玻利瓦爾嘅選擇。根據Chainalysis數據,委內瑞拉於加密貨幣採用全球排第18,人均更高達第9,2024年加密貨幣活動增長達110%。

Annual inflation of 229% and the bolívar's 70% depreciation since October 2024 have created persistent demand for dollar-denominated alternatives that Tether provides. USDT functions as a de facto parallel currency in Venezuelan commerce, with businesses routinely quoting prices and accepting payments in Tether for goods and services ranging from utilities to security services. The existence of three parallel exchange rates - official bolívars at 151.57 per dollar, parallel market rates at 231.76, and Tether/Binance rates at 219.62 - illustrates how cryptocurrency has become integrated into Venezuelan monetary arrangements.

年度通脹高達229%,自2024年10月以來,玻利瓦爾已貶值七成,造就咗對美元計價資產(如Tether)嘅長期需求。USDT已經變成委內瑞拉商業社會嘅事實上平行貨幣,商舖日常用Tether報價及接受付款,涉及水電以至保安等各類服務。現時有三個平行匯率:官方玻利瓦爾兌美元151.57、平行市場231.76、Tether/Binance匯率219.62——證明加密貨幣已融入委內瑞拉貨幣體系。

Small businesses have emerged as primary drivers of USDT adoption, with bodegas, restaurants, and service providers preferring cryptocurrency payments over cash due to convenience and inflation protection. Unlike formal banking systems that require government permits and currency controls, Tether transactions enable immediate settlement and value preservation without regulatory compliance burdens. The preference for stablecoins over Bitcoin reflects practical utility for daily transactions rather than speculation or investment purposes. Remittances represent another critical use case for cryptocurrency in Venezuela, with digital assets accounting for approximately 9% of the $5.4 billion in remittances received during 2023.

小型企業成為推動USDT應用嘅主力,便利店、餐廳、服務提供者都偏好加密貨幣多過現金,原因係方便兼可抗通脹。與傳統銀行體制需持牌及設外匯管制不同,Tether交易即時結算且值錢,更無需煩惱監管合規。大家用穩定幣多過比特幣,理由係實用便利做日常交易,而唔係炒賣投資。匯款亦係委內瑞拉加密貨幣另一個重大應用——2023年間,數碼資產佔全國54億美元匯款約9%。

Traditional remittance services face regulatory challenges and high fees, while cryptocurrency enables direct family-to-family transfers at costs below 1% compared to 6-7% for traditional services. The volume savings on annual remittances could amount to millions of dollars in reduced transaction costs. Government responses to grassroots cryptocurrency adoption have been inconsistent and sometimes counterproductive.

傳統匯款服務受制於監管同高昂手續費,而加密貨幣可做到家庭對家庭直接轉帳,成本可低於1%,而傳統服務一般高達6-7%。匯款總量節省可計達數百萬美元交易成本。政府對基層加密貨幣應用反應反覆,有時更適得其反。

The May 2024 cryptocurrency mining ban due to power grid strain attempted to address infrastructure limitations but also reduced domestic cryptocurrency supply. Exchange controls and capital restrictions create artificial demand for cryptocurrency as one of the few mechanisms for Venezuelans to access dollar-denominated assets. The absence of effective regulatory oversight following the SUNACRIP corruption scandal has created regulatory uncertainty that affects both legitimate and illicit cryptocurrency usage. Suspended oversight bodies and inconsistent enforcement make compliance challenging for businesses seeking to integrate cryptocurrency payments legally. This regulatory vacuum contrasts with more structured approaches in other sanctioned nations that have developed comprehensive frameworks for cryptocurrency adoption. Infrastructure challenges limit broader cryptocurrency adoption despite strong economic incentives.

2024年5月,政府因應電網壓力禁止加密貨幣挖礦,原意為處理基礎設施不足,卻同時減少咗本地加密貨幣供應。外匯管制同資本管制迫使市民更多用加密貨幣去接觸美元資產。SUNACRIP腐敗醜聞後,監管真空持續,合法與非法加密貨幣用途一樣充滿不確定。相關監管部門停擺、執法零碎,令想合法接受加密貨幣付款嘅商戶難以合規。這種監管真空與其他受制裁國家推行更有系統加密貨幣政策形成鮮明對比。雖然有強大經濟誘因,基礎設施問題仍限制咗更廣泛應用。

Poor internet connectivity outside major cities restricts digital asset usage to urban areas, while limited access to smartphones and technical education creates adoption barriers for rural populations. Power outages and telecommunications disruptions periodically affect cryptocurrency transactions, highlighting dependence on basic infrastructure that remains unreliable in many regions.

大型城市以外地區網絡差,數碼資產僅限城市使用,鄉郊因智能電話及技術知識缺乏,採用障礙更大。間中停電同電訊中斷亦會影響加密貨幣交易,突顯基礎設施唔穩定嘅現實。

Cuba: Crypto Remittances Amid Banking Isolation

Cuba's cryptocurrency adoption primarily addresses remittance needs created by U.S. sanctions and banking restrictions that have eliminated traditional money transfer mechanisms. The 2020 shutdown of Western Union services - which previously handled the majority of Cuban remittances - created immediate needs for alternative transfer mechanisms that cryptocurrency has partially filled, though adoption remains constrained by infrastructure limitations and regulatory uncertainty.

古巴:加密貨幣匯款應對銀行孤立

古巴使用加密貨幣主要係為咗解決美國制裁同銀行限制下嘅匯款需要——傳統匯款路徑被切斷。2020年Western Union停止服務,原先大部份古巴匯款即時冇咗着落,加密貨幣成為代替方案,但受制於基建同監管不明朗,實際普及度有限。

Remittances historically represented approximately 6% of Cuba's GDP during the 2005-2020 period, providing critical hard currency inflows that supported millions of Cuban families. The elimination of traditional remittance channels created a significant humanitarian impact while driving innovation in cryptocurrency-based transfer mechanisms. Specialized services like BitRemesas.com emerged to facilitate family transfers using Bitcoin and other digital assets, though volumes remain limited compared to pre-restriction levels.

2005至2020年間,匯款一般佔古巴GDP約6%,為全國數百萬家庭提供外匯來源。傳統渠道取消對人道產生重大衝擊,亦推動以加密貨幣解決匯款問題。出現咗如BitRemesas.com咁嘅專門服務,幫家庭用比特幣等數碼資產過數,惟整體金額遠遜於受限制前。

The cost advantages of cryptocurrency remittances are substantial, with digital asset transfers typically costing less than 1% compared to 6-7% for traditional money transfer services. For Cuban families receiving remittances, these savings are significant given average remittance amounts of $100-500 per transaction. However, technical complexity and limited access to cryptocurrency exchanges in Cuba create practical barriers that prevent broader adoption. Peer-to-peer trading networks have developed to address exchange access limitations, with activity coordinated through WhatsApp groups, Telegram channels, and specialized platforms like LocalBitcoins. The typical transaction flow involves Miami-based family members purchasing Bitcoin and transferring it to Cuban contacts who exchange the cryptocurrency for pesos or dollars through local networks.

用加密貨幣匯款嘅成本有極大優勢——數碼資產過數費用少於1%,而傳統服務高達6-7%。對家庭每次收百幾至幾百美元嘅匯款來講,節省非常可觀。不過,加密貨幣質素複雜、古巴難上主流交易所,限制咗普及面。為解決交易所不足,出現咗點對點網絡,靠WhatsApp群組、Telegram頻道及LocalBitcoins等平台做撮合。典型流程係:美國邁阿密家人買比特幣,傳畀古巴親戚,對方再通過本地網絡換回披索或美元。

These informal arrangements carry counterparty risks but provide essential services unavailable through formal channels. Exchange access represents the primary constraint on Cuban cryptocurrency adoption, with major platforms like Binance and Coinbase geo-blocking Cuban users due to sanctions compliance requirements. This forces reliance on peer-to-peer networks and smaller exchanges that may lack security features and regulatory oversight available on major platforms. The limited availability of secure exchange services increases risks for users while reducing overall transaction volumes. Cuba's August 2021 Central Bank Resolution 215 provided legal recognition for cryptocurrencies and established licensing frameworks for virtual asset service providers, representing a more permissive regulatory approach than most sanctioned nations.

呢啲非正式方案有對手風險,但可補官方渠道之不足。能否上交易所係古巴普及加密貨幣嘅大障礙——Binance、Coinbase等大平台因制裁封鎖古巴IP,用戶唯有靠點對點同細交易所,這類未必有完善保障及監管,增加用戶風險,亦限制交易總量。2021年8月中央銀行第215號決議正式承認加密貨幣,亦對虛擬資產服務商設立發牌制,比大部分受制裁國家更開放。

The 2024 comprehensive framework included anti-money laundering rules and reporting requirements designed to prevent illicit usage while enabling legitimate remittance activity. This regulatory clarity contrasts with prohibition approaches in some neighboring countries, reflecting Cuban assessment that cryptocurrency provides essential economic benefits. Internet infrastructure limitations represent a fundamental constraint on broader cryptocurrency adoption throughout Cuba. The country maintains some of the world's slowest internet speeds with limited penetration outside urban areas, restricting cryptocurrency usage to populations with reliable connectivity. Mobile data costs remain prohibitive for many Cubans, while power outages periodically disrupt internet access necessary for cryptocurrency transactions.

2024年,古巴補充出台防洗錢同申報機制,希望杜絕非法用途、保證合法匯款順利。相比鄰國嚴禁加密貨幣,古巴取態反映咗佢哋肯定加密貨幣對經濟帶來實質益處。惟互聯網基建係最大限制——全國網速全球最慢之一,城市外更難上網,部份市民根本無法用加密貨幣。流動數據費高昂,間中停電亦會令加密貨幣交易無法進行。

Political uncertainty affects long-term cryptocurrency adoption prospects, particularly regarding U.S. sanctions policy changes. The Biden administration's removal of Cuba from the State Sponsors of Terrorism list was reversed by the returning Trump administration, creating compliance risks for any entity facilitating Cuban cryptocurrency transactions. These policy reversals make long-term planning difficult for both Cuban users and international service providers. KYC and compliance requirements create additional complications for Cuban cryptocurrency users, as international compliance standards often conflict with sanctions restrictions. Major exchanges that implement comprehensive identity verification may reject Cuban users regardless of transaction legitimacy, while services that accept Cuban users may face regulatory scrutiny in Western jurisdictions.

政治因素影響長遠發展前景——特別係美國制裁政策變動。拜登政府將古巴移出恐怖主義支持國清單,特朗普一上台又反轉,令協助古巴加密存取服務嘅實體陷合規風險。反覆政策令本地用戶及國際服務商難作長遠規劃。KYC同合規要求令古巴用戶麻煩更大,因全球標準同制裁政策時有衝突。大平台嚴格驗身會直接拒做古巴人生意,肯收古巴人嘅服務亦隨時受西方政府監管壓力。

This compliance maze makes it difficult for Cubans to access secure, regulated cryptocurrency services. The Cuban government's dual approach of regulating rather than prohibiting cryptocurrency reflects recognition that digital assets provide essential services that traditional financial systems cannot deliver under current sanctions. However, limited technical infrastructure and persistent sanctions uncertainty constrain adoption to a small urban population with internet access and technical sophistication necessary to navigate complex peer-to-peer networks.

整個合規迷宮令古巴人難以用上安全受規管嘅加密貨幣服務。政府選擇規管而非禁止,加密貨幣亦能為在制裁下嘅國家帶來傳統金融無法實現嘅必要服務。但基建落後同制裁前景不明,實際應用只集中於有網絡、有技術能力嘅城市少數群體。

Other Sanctioned Nations: Syria, Myanmar, and Afghanistan

Beyond the major case studies, several other sanctioned nations demonstrate varying degrees of cryptocurrency adoption constrained by conflict, infrastructure limitations, and varying sanctions regimes. Syria, Myanmar, and Afghanistan each present unique circumstances that illuminate different aspects of how cryptocurrency functions under comprehensive international restrictions.

其他受制裁國家:敘利亞、緬甸、阿富汗

除咗幾個重點案例,另有數個受制裁國家都因衝突、基建困難、制裁政策不同等,呈現各自不同層次的加密貨幣應用情況。敘利亞、緬甸、阿富汗正好代表唔同環境下,加密貨幣於國際圍堵下點樣實際運作。

Syria's cryptocurrency adoption remains limited due to ongoing conflict and infrastructure destruction, though available evidence suggests

敘利亞因戰亂持續、基礎建設破壞,加密貨幣普及率依然有限,雖然現有證據顯示...Here is the translation to zh-Hant-HK, with markdown links skipped as instructed:


有部分用於跨境交易和規避制裁。OFAC(美國財政部海外資產控制辦公室)於2024年制裁了敘利亞的 Tawfiq Muhammad Said Al-Law,因其協助將加密貨幣轉移至真主黨,顯示數碼資產如何在全面制裁下,仍能為代理組織融資。

不過,電訊基建被大規模摧毀及電力供應有限,相比其他被制裁國家,這些因素限制了加密貨幣的更廣泛應用。緬甸已成為與加密貨幣有關的犯罪活動重鎮,尤其是大規模「殺豬盤」詐騙行動,利用強迫勞動進行針對全球受害者的加密詐騙。OFAC在2025年對緬甸及柬埔寨19個實體實施制裁,因其經營龐大的加密貨幣詐騙網絡,造成美國受害者損失逾一百億美元。這些行動通常得到克倫民族軍以分紅換取庇護,反映治理薄弱如何助長以加密貨幣為基礎的犯罪企業。

緬甸的詐騙行動說明加密貨幣一方面可用於逃避制裁,另一方面亦成為國際罪行的媒介,加強了加強監管的理據。據報區內有超過十二萬人被迫參與加密詐騙,既引發人道危機,同時產生複雜化制裁執行的加密貨幣資金流。這些產業化運作規模被形容為「人類歷史上最大的犯罪企業」,顯示加密貨幣如何促成超越傳統司法管轄界線的犯罪行為。自塔利班復辟及全面國際制裁後,阿富汗加密貨幣採納數據仍然有限。

塔利班對女性教育和就業的限制帶來額外社會障礙,窒礙加密貨幣的更廣泛應用,而OFAC全面制裁則限制金融業發展。雖然有記錄到部分與巴基斯坦及伊朗之間的跨境加密貨幣活動,但相比其他被制裁地區,規模明顯較小。這些案例說明,本地條件對制裁下加密貨幣使用模式影響甚大。

發生衝突的國家即使有經濟誘因,也因基礎建設受限難以推廣數碼資產,同時治理薄弱又會被犯罪分子利用加密貨幣系統,最終破壞正規應用。這些多元結果顯示,制裁對加密貨幣影響的有效性,視乎本地技術能力、治理水平及執法能力而有很大分別。

對全球加密貨幣市場及合規的影響

2024年,被制裁地區共接收加密貨幣達158億美元,這並不是純粹的學術數據,而是體現去中心化科技與傳統監管執法間的根本矛盾,正重塑全球加密貨幣市場。這種矛盾通過合規成本、流動性影響、科技發展及執法行動反映出來,不論是否涉及被制裁實體,所有市場參與者都受到影響。

由於加密企業需執行制裁篩查及風險管理,合規成本急劇上升。Binance於2024年與美國當局達成破紀錄43億美元和解協議 ── 當中包括OFAC對2017年8月至2022年10月間1,667,153宗制裁違規的9.686億美元罰款,突顯合規不足會帶來巨額財政後果。

根據和解協議,Binance需全面退出美國市場,接受五年監察,並實施覆蓋29國的地理封鎖措施,包括所有主要被制裁地區。Binance案樹立了新合規標準,促使全行業營運和風險管理方式大幅改革。主要交易所現時實施實時交易監控、GPS及手機數據加強地理圍欄、IP封鎖及VPN偵測系統,以及每年必修的制裁合規培訓。Binance單是合規部門人手已增至750人,並於合規基建投資數千萬美元,這些成本令較小交易所難以同時負擔和保持競爭力。

交易所合規措施,已明顯影響被制裁地區獲取加密貨幣服務的能力。2022至2024年,伊朗服務的交易所互動跌了23%,與此同時,俄語交易所雖然受到執法壓力,卻持續通過繼任實體及司法區套利方式繼續運作。荷蘭因監管批准失敗,迫使Binance退出本地市場,而尼日利亞則拘捕高層並終止奈拉業務,顯示合規失誤可導致市場完全排除。去中心化交易所(DEX)興起,既反映科技創新,亦是用戶為避開重合規中央平台而選擇的套利方式。

2024年DEX交易量超過1.5萬億美元,至2025年1月佔整體市場份額20%──創歷史新高。Solana上的Raydium市佔由7.6%升至26%,而永續DEX較集中的期貨平台市佔則由4.5%升至10%。DEX的發展為執法構成新挑戰,傳統監管手法難以應對。與具明確營運方及明確司法管轄的中央交易所不同,DEX協議以智能合約運行,無論監管行動如何都會繼續自動運作。

2024年11月美國法院裁定限制OFAC對智能合約的管轄權,隨後2025年1月撤回對Tornado Cash的制裁,確立對真正去中心化系統的政府權力限制。隨著監控及合規措施增強,私隱工具研發步伐加快,導致監管與開發匿名技術者之間形成「軍備競賽」。儘管面對制裁及開發者被捕,Tornado Cash流入量於2024年上升108%,反映去中心化私隱基建的韌性。新混幣服務和私隱協定不斷湧現,Layer 2方案更帶來額外遮掩功能,令傳統區塊鏈分析面對挑戰。

私隱為主的基建增長,反映市場對金融私隱的需求遠超於規避制裁,包括個人安全、企業機密及抗威權等合法用途。不過,監管當局愈來愈將私隱工具視為可疑,從而產生私隱權與制裁執法的緊張,法院已開始以憲法角度審視。

被制裁地區活動對市場流動性的影響難有確實量化,但在某些分部明顯舉足輕重。像Garantex等俄羅斯交易所儘管受制裁,仍處理超過一千億美元,影響全球對應銀行及交易所的合規風險評價。地區性價格溢價──例如南韓持續的「泡菜溢價」及伊朗裡亞爾貶值推動對加密貨幣需求──反映地緣衝突帶來套利機遇及局部市場扭曲。穩定幣用途顯示USDT在制裁規避活動中佔主導地位──非法加密交易有63%用USDT,相比起USDC等競爭產品幾近可忽略。這種集中反映USDT有較高市場流動性,而Tether在合規方面較寬鬆,與實施更嚴格審查的競爭對手不同。

T3金融犯罪小組(TRON、Tether、TRM Labs)於2024年半年內凍結了1.3億美元非法收益,顯示穩定幣發行商與合規公司之間的合作增強。監管套利愈來愈常見,交易所/服務供應商尋找對監管友善、制裁執法力薄弱的司法區。2024年9月《Final Exchange》行動查封47個俄羅斯無KYC交易所後,活動只是轉往新平台而非終止;而針對Cryptex營運者 Sergey Sergeevich Ivanov 的1000萬美元懸賞,也凸顯了目標若超越西方司法範疇,執法難度極高。

2024年橫跨鏈橋遭攻擊,累計損失達22億美元,反映技術漏洞及跨鏈中介基建在規避制裁上的關鍵性。橋接協議可在不同合規特性的區塊鏈之間轉移資產,讓用戶有機會利用司法區空隙或技術缺陷,避開制裁篩查。橋接損失增加17%,顯示這些漏洞已被系統性利用。

執法機構能力已大有提升,以應對加密貨幣促成的規避制裁──區塊鏈分析已成為調查與檢控的標準工具。實時交易監控融入合規系統,使違反制裁即時被偵查,同時國際合作提升,促成如德國帶頭的Final Exchange圍剿行動。不過,資源有限及技術門檻,仍令當局難以跟上市場技術的急速演變。制裁合規科技發展亦為執法和規避雙方創造新機遇。先進區塊鏈分析現可在多種加密貨幣之間追蹤交易。

---and exchanges, while artificial intelligence enables pattern recognition that identifies suspicious activity.
和交易所一樣,人工智能可以進行模式識別,協助識別可疑活動。

Conversely, new privacy technologies and cross-chain protocols create additional obfuscation capabilities that challenge existing detection methods, leading to perpetual technological competition between regulators and sanctions evaders. The global nature of cryptocurrency markets means that sanctions compliance failures in any major jurisdiction affect worldwide market stability and regulatory frameworks. The interconnected nature of cryptocurrency liquidity means that sanctioned jurisdiction activity affects global price discovery, while compliance costs and enforcement actions impact all market participants regardless of their direct involvement with restricted entities. 相反,嶄新的私隱技術同跨鏈協議提升了資金隱匿能力,對現有偵測手法帶來新挑戰,造成監管機關同制裁規避者之間持續嘅科技博弈。加密貨幣市場全球化意味住,只要任何一個主要司法管轄區制裁遵從出現失誤,全球市場穩定同監管架構都會受影響。由於加密貨幣流動性高度互聯,受制裁地區的活動會影響全球價格發現,而合規成本同執法行動亦會波及所有市場參與者,就算佢哋同受限制實體冇直接關聯都會受到牽連。

Is Crypto Really a Sanctions Loophole?

The $15.8 billion in cryptocurrency received by sanctioned jurisdictions during 2024 represents a significant absolute amount but must be evaluated within broader context to assess whether digital assets truly constitute an effective sanctions loophole. While cryptocurrency enables some circumvention of traditional financial restrictions, evidence suggests its utility as a sanctions evasion tool faces substantial limitations that constrain its effectiveness relative to the total scale of international sanctions regimes.

到底加密貨幣係咪真係成為制裁漏洞?

2024年,被制裁地區收到加密貨幣金額高達158億美元,數字上絕對唔細,但實際上要置於更大嘅背景下先可以判斷數碼資產到底算唔算有效嘅制裁漏洞。誠然,加密貨幣確實能夠繞過某啲傳統金融限制,但現有證據顯示,作為制裁規避工具,加密貨幣受到唔少限制,未能於國際制裁整體規模下成為非常有效的規避渠道。

The fundamental question centers on proportionality and scope. Sanctioned nations collectively represent trillions of dollars in economic activity that international restrictions target, while even generous estimates of crypto-enabled sanctions evasion reach tens of billions annually. Russia's pre-2022 international trade exceeded $800 billion, Iran's pre-sanctions economy approached $500 billion, and Venezuela's oil exports alone previously generated $50+ billion annually. 關鍵問題在於規模與比例。受制裁國家嘅經濟總量存以萬億美元計算,而外界估算就算極其樂觀,以加密貨幣規避制裁每年都只去到數十億美元。以俄羅斯為例,2022年前國際貿易額超過8,000億美元,伊朗未受制裁前經濟規模接近5,000億美元,委內瑞拉單是石油出口一年就有超過500億美元。

Against this backdrop, cryptocurrency's role appears supplementary rather than transformative. Blockchain analytics provide unprecedented visibility into cryptocurrency transactions that traditional sanctions evasion methods lack entirely. Unlike cash, gold, or complex shell company structures that can obscure transaction flows indefinitely, cryptocurrency transactions leave permanent records on distributed ledgers that become more analyzable over time as forensic techniques improve. Chainalysis, TRM Labs, and Elliptic can now trace cryptocurrency flows across multiple blockchains and exchanges with high confidence, enabling law enforcement responses that would be impossible with traditional financial crimes. 喺呢個背景下,加密貨幣嘅角色似乎只是輔助而唔係顛覆性。區塊鏈分析帶來前所未有的透明度,令加密貨幣交易極易追蹤,而傳統規避制裁方法則完全冇呢種特性。與現金、黃金,或複雜空殼公司結構唔同,加密貨幣交易會永久記錄喺分散帳本上,隨住刑偵技術提升,追查能力亦會加強。Chainalysis、TRM Labs 同 Elliptic等公司,可以高度信心追蹤多條鏈同多個平台之間流向,令執法部門有能力打擊傳統金融罪案難以處理的跨境資金流。

The traceability advantage extends beyond initial transactions to longer-term analysis that can identify patterns and relationships invisible to traditional financial surveillance. The attribution of North Korea's Lazarus Group activities, tracking of Iranian capital flight patterns, and mapping of Russian sanctions evasion networks all demonstrate how blockchain transparency enables comprehensive analysis of illicit financial networks. This transparency creates persistent compliance risks for sanctions evaders that don't exist with traditional methods. However, the development of privacy-enhancing technologies creates counterpressures that reduce cryptocurrency's transparency advantages. 可追蹤性唔止初步交易,長期分析更加可以揭示傳統金融監控無法察覺的模式與關係。無論係揭示北韓Lazarus Group的活動、追蹤伊朗資金外流、定繪出俄羅斯規避制裁網絡,區塊鏈透明度都證明有力,令不法資金網路徹底曝光。不過,這種透明度帶嚟持久的合規風險,而傳統方法則冇這種風險。但現時私隱強化技術發展亦造就反壓力,令加密貨幣透明度優勢有所減弱。

Despite sanctions against Tornado Cash and arrests of developers, the mixing service saw 108% growth in usage during 2024, demonstrating resilience of decentralized privacy infrastructure. New privacy protocols, Layer 2 solutions, and cross-chain bridges continue emerging that provide enhanced anonymity capabilities, creating an ongoing technology competition between privacy developers and regulatory enforcement. Scale limitations represent perhaps the most significant constraint on cryptocurrency's utility for sanctions evasion. 雖然Tornado Cash受到制裁,開發者亦被捕,但該混幣服務於2024年用量反而增加108%,顯示去中心化私隱基建依然極具韌性。新私隱協議、Layer 2方案同跨鏈橋持續推出,進一步提升匿名能力,造成私隱開發者同監管執法機構之間不斷嘅科技角力。然而,規模限制或許係加密貨幣作為規避制裁用途時最大嘅短板。

Even major centralized exchanges struggle to process transactions at the scale necessary for significant sanctions circumvention, while decentralized alternatives face liquidity constraints that limit large transaction processing. The $1.46 billion Bybit hack by North Korea's Lazarus Group - the largest cryptocurrency theft in history - illustrates both the potential scale of crypto operations and the practical limits imposed by exchange security and liquidity constraints. 即使大型中心化交易所都難以處理大規模規避制裁交易,而去中心化平台則面對流動性不足,難以處理龐大資金。北韓Lazarus Group發動的Bybit駭客事件,涉款達14.6億美元(史上最大加密貨幣竊案),正好展示加密操作的潛在規模同時又揭示咗交易所安全同流動性短板帶嚟嘅實際限制。

Regulatory countermeasures have proven effective in constraining cryptocurrency's utility for sanctions evasion, though implementation remains inconsistent globally. Exchange interactions with Iranian services declined 23% between 2022 and 2024, while major platform geo-blocking has forced sanctions evaders toward smaller, less liquid alternatives with higher costs and greater risks. The $4.3 billion Binance settlement established compliance standards that make large-scale sanctions evasion increasingly expensive and risky for cryptocurrency businesses. The argument that cryptocurrency provides meaningful sanctions circumvention capabilities rests primarily on its decentralized architecture and global accessibility. Unlike traditional banking systems where transactions require intermediary approval, cryptocurrency networks enable peer-to-peer transactions that no central authority can prevent. This creates theoretical capabilities for sanctions evasion that don't exist within traditional financial systems, particularly for smaller transactions and individuals rather than large institutional flows. 監管反制措施已被證明有助限制加密貨幣規避制裁嘅用途,但全球執行效果參差。2022至2024年間,交易所同伊朗服務互動下降23%,大型平台地理封鎖迫使制裁規避者轉向規模更細、流動性更低、成本亦更高及風險更大嘅渠道。Binance的43億美元結算協議樹立了合規標準,令大型規避制裁行為對加密業務來講愈來愈昂貴同危險。認為加密貨幣能提供有效規避制裁能力,主要係基於佢去中心化架構同全球可用性。與傳統銀行體系需經中介審批唔同,加密貨幣網絡容許點對點交易,中央機構無法阻止,為規避制裁提供理論可能,尤其適用於小額及個人層面,而唔係大型機構性資金流。

Practical adoption patterns suggest cryptocurrency serves more as a supplementary tool than primary sanctions circumvention mechanism. Iranian cryptocurrency outflows of $4.18 billion in 2024, while significant in absolute terms, represent a small fraction of Iran's total economic activity and international trade needs. Similarly, Russian cryptocurrency adoption, despite reaching impressive scale in relative terms, remains marginal compared to Russia's overall economic requirements and international transaction volumes. The effectiveness of cryptocurrency for sanctions circumvention varies significantly based on transaction type, amount, and intended use. Individual remittances, small business payments, and personal capital preservation may find cryptocurrency highly effective for circumventing banking restrictions. 實際應用模式表明,加密貨幣只係補充性工具,而唔係主要規避制裁機制。2024年伊朗加密貨幣外流達41.8億美元,絕對數字雖不菲,但僅佔伊朗總體經濟活動及國際貿易需求嘅一小部分。同樣,俄羅斯加密貨幣應用相對規模唔錯,不過同佢整體經濟規模及國際交易量比,仍然屬於邊緣。加密貨幣對規避制裁的效用,取決於交易類型、金額及用途。個人匯款、中小企支付、資金保值等,確實較易用加密貨幣繞過銀行限制。

However, large-scale trade financing, government operations, and industrial transactions face practical constraints that limit cryptocurrency's utility regardless of its theoretical capabilities. Academic research suggests cryptocurrency's sanctions evasion utility is constrained by network effects that favor compliance with traditional regulatory frameworks. Major cryptocurrency exchanges, stablecoin issuers, and infrastructure providers face stronger incentives to maintain access to Western markets than to serve sanctioned jurisdictions, creating structural biases toward compliance that limit crypto's utility for sanctions evasion as markets mature and consolidate. 然而,要大規模貿易融資、政府運作或產業交易,要利用加密貨幣都會受到現實環境限制,就算理論上得都難以落實。學術研究亦指出,加密貨幣規避制裁的效用受制於網絡效應,因主流市場傾向遵從傳統監管要求。大型交易所、穩定幣發行商及基礎設施供應商,更傾向維持對西方市場的准入權,而唔係冒險服務被制裁地區,這種結構性傾向促使合規壓倒規避,隨住市場成熟與整合,這一點愈來愈明顯。

The temporal dimension of sanctions effectiveness complicates assessment of cryptocurrency's impact. Sanctions typically aim to impose costs and change behavior over time rather than achieve immediate economic collapse. Even if cryptocurrency enables partial circumvention of specific restrictions, it may not provide sufficient relief to prevent the broader economic and political pressures that sanctions are designed to create. Intelligence community assessments suggest cryptocurrency enables tactical sanctions evasion but doesn't fundamentally undermine strategic sanctions objectives. While North Korean cryptocurrency theft provides revenue for weapons programs, it hasn't prevented broader international isolation from constraining the country's economic development. Similarly, Iranian and Russian cryptocurrency adoption may provide partial relief from specific restrictions without enabling full normalization of international economic relationships. 制裁成效具有時間跨度,這點令評估加密貨幣影響變得複雜。制裁旨在長期施加經濟壓力,改變對方行為,而唔係即時擊垮其經濟。即使加密貨幣能夠規避部分限制,亦未必足以抵銷制裁帶來嘅更廣泛經濟同政治壓力。情報機構一般認為,加密貨幣有助戰術性規避制裁,但並未從根本上破壞戰略制裁目標。例如北韓雖透過加密貨幣盜竊獲得武器計劃資金,但仍無法抵抗持續國際孤立對其經濟發展的限制。同理,伊朗及俄羅斯加密貨幣應用亦只可解決部分限制,卻不能讓其全面回歸國際經濟體系。

The debate over cryptocurrency's sanctions evasion effectiveness ultimately reflects deeper questions about the future of monetary sovereignty and international economic governance. If cryptocurrency technologies continue developing in ways that enhance privacy and reduce regulatory oversight, they may eventually provide more comprehensive alternatives to traditional financial systems. However, current evidence suggests cryptocurrency remains more effective as a tool for specific use cases rather than comprehensive sanctions circumvention. 圍繞加密貨幣規避制裁效力的討論,實際上反映出關於貨幣主權同國際經濟管治之未來更深層問題。如果未來加密貨幣技術持續加強私隱保護並削弱監管監控,長遠或可提供對傳統金融體系更全面嘅替代方案。但目前證據顯示,加密貨幣仍然只適合作為某些特定情境下嘅工具,而唔係全面規避制裁的萬能解決方案。

Regulatory and Geopolitical Implications

The intersection of cryptocurrency adoption and international sanctions creates profound implications for global governance, monetary policy, and technological development that extend far beyond the immediate transactions conducted by sanctioned entities. These implications are reshaping fundamental assumptions about state power, financial sovereignty, and the future architecture of international economic relationships in ways that policymakers are only beginning to understand.

監管及地緣政治影響

加密貨幣普及同國際制裁交集,對全球治理、貨幣政策及技術發展帶來深遠影響,遠超被制裁實體當下交易規模。這些影響正在重塑對國家權力、金融主權同未來國際經濟架構的基本假設,政策制定者到目前為止都只係剛剛開始意識到其深層轉變。

The Financial Action Task Force's struggle to implement effective Travel Rule requirements illustrates broader challenges in applying traditional regulatory frameworks to decentralized technologies. Despite 85 of 117 jurisdictions implementing Travel Rule legislation by 2025, FATF's assessment concluded that global implementation remains "lagging" due to technical complexity, fragmented national approaches, and limited enforcement capabilities. This implementation gap creates exploitable vulnerabilities that sanctioned actors can leverage while imposing compliance costs on legitimate users. 金融行動特別工作組(FATF)推動Travel Rule(旅行規則)時遇到困難,正好反映傳統監管框架套用於去中心化技術之廣泛挑戰。儘管到2025年已有117個司法管轄區中有85個落實了Travel Rule法例,但FATF評估認為受制於技術複雜性、國家政策碎片化同執行力有限,全球推行情況仍然「落後」。這個執行鴻溝製造可供被制裁者利用的漏洞,但同時令合法用戶負擔合規成本。

G7 and G20 coordination efforts have accelerated in response to cryptocurrency-enabled sanctions evasion, but face persistent challenges in achieving consistent implementation across diverse regulatory environments. The G20 Crypto-Asset Policy Implementation Roadmap provides comprehensive frameworks, but enforcement depends on national-level implementation that varies significantly in scope, timing, and effectiveness. The planned end-2025 G7同G20加緊協調對策以應對加密貨幣規避制裁,但要喺不同監管環境下實現一致推行,依然面對長期挑戰。G20加密資產政策推行路線圖為各國提供全面框架,但落實與否始終要視國家層面規模、時機及執行力而定,情況千差萬別。計劃到2025年尾...FSB審查很可能會揭示持續存在的漏洞,這些漏洞為監管套利創造了機會。

2024-2025年的法院裁決建立了限制政府對去中心化加密貨幣基礎設施權力的重要先例。第五巡迴法院在“Tornado Cash訴財政部”一案中裁定,OFAC在制裁不可更改智能合約時超越了法定權限;而隨後推翻Tornado Cash制裁的命令則為政府對真正去中心化系統的權力設立了界限。這些裁決表明,傳統的監管方法可能不足以對加密貨幣進行全面監管。

替代支付系統的出現為以美元為主導的全球金融帶來了超越特定制裁機制的系統性挑戰。BRICS Pay的開發(佔全球經濟的35%),加上如mBridge等區塊鏈結算系統,展示了在不依賴西方金融基建下進行國際商業交易的技術可行性。特朗普政府威脅對離開美元體系的金磚國家徵收100%關稅,反映了對這些系統戰略意義的認知。

無論是被制裁還是未被制裁國家的中央銀行數碼貨幣(CBDC)發展,亦令國際貨幣安排變得更為複雜。伊朗在Kish Island的數碼里亞爾試點、俄羅斯有19間以上銀行參與的數碼盧布試驗,以及共同開發以黃金作為擔保的穩定幣,都證明CBDC技術不但能為國家提供受監管的私人加密貨幣替代品,同時亦有助於規避制裁。

全球加密貨幣市場出現分化風險,反映出技術創新與監管控制之間更廣泛的緊張關係,而這種關係在現有國際框架下可能難以調和。遵守反洗錢/打擊資金籌集(AML/CFT)要求的西方取向加密基建,有可能與按照不同監管標準運作的替代系統並存,造成互聯性有限、系統風險增加的平行金融生態圈。

針對加密貨幣制裁規避的國會立法,說明了監管方法正向更全面監督去中心化系統的方向演進。《數碼資產反洗錢法》和CANSEE法案,將傳統金融監管延伸至驗證者、挖礦者及DeFi協議,同時更新財政部的特別措施權力以涵蓋非銀行加密貨幣交易。然而,由於加密貨幣網絡本質上是全球性的,若無廣泛的國際合作,單方面立法可能成效有限。

創新政策影響造成在維持技術領先優勢及防止規避制裁之間的根本矛盾,需要小心平衡。過於嚴格的加密貨幣監管,可能將創新活動推向監管更寬鬆的司法管轄區,結果既防不了通過離岸方案規避制裁,亦有可能拱手讓出技術優勢。這一挑戰更因為技術發展遠遠超前監管適應而愈加嚴重。

國際合作框架在應對加密貨幣全球化及去中心化本質同時,還要尊重國家主權及多樣化監管方法,遇上前所未有的難題。傳統的雙邊與多邊合作機制,是為有明確司法權限的中心化金融系統而設,但加密貨幣網絡則是通過技術協議跨境運作,而非以機構關係為依歸。

有效執行加密貨幣制裁所需的資源,遠超目前政府於技術專才、分析工具及國際協調機制上的能力。區塊鏈分析需要專門知識及昂貴科技平台,同時因應私隱技術發展而保持領先地位,需持續投入人力及技術資源,這是許多執法機構所不具備的。

地緣政治競爭日益將加密貨幣及區塊鏈技術納入治國工具,能夠支持或削弱現有國際貨幣安排。中國數位人民幣發展、俄羅斯數碼盧布試驗及金磚區塊鏈倡議,代表著有策略地建立西方以外金融基建替代方案,同時保持國家對貨幣政策的控制。

隨著目標國家發展出成熟的規避工具,有效制裁的範式受到根本挑戰。學術研究指出,像俄羅斯這類大型全球整合經濟體,比規模較小、聯繫較少的國家更難以被制裁;而加密貨幣無論經濟規模或整合度如何,都為規避限制提供了額外工具。

金融監管者、國家安全機構和創新推動部門之間的科技政策協調,需要嶄新的制度框架平衡互相競逐的目標,同時維持民主監督及問責。加密貨幣技術的複雜性及其全球影響,超出了傳統狹義部門監管機構的能力範疇。

展望未來,加密貨幣監管走向大概率將涉及私隱強化與監控能力之間的持續科技競賽、企業尋找有利監管地區而進行的監管套利,以及圍繞國際貨幣體系架構的地緣政治較量。這些競賽的結果,將深刻影響國際制裁的效力及全球金融基建的整體演化。

由此可見,加密貨幣監管將愈來愈多地變成高層次策略競爭領域,而不僅僅是技術政策實施。要同時維持技術創新和有效執行制裁,可能需要政府從根本上改變對加密貨幣監管及國際經濟治理的處理思路。

最後想法

證據顯示,加密貨幣的現實情況相當複雜,既難以將其簡單定性為避制裁的靈丹妙藥,也不是毫無意義的技術新奇事物。2024年,被制裁國家共收到158億美元加密貨幣,固然是絕對數目可觀,但與制裁針對的數萬億美元經濟活動相比,仍然只是沧海一粟。

這個規模說明,加密貨幣在某些特定場合—例如個人匯款、中小企業交易、資本外流—可以發揮戰術性作用,但要進行大規模規避制裁則面對很大限制。最值得注意的,是不同被制裁司法管轄區的做法五花八門,反映出各自技術能力、政府政策和制裁結構的差異。俄羅斯建立了最全面的國家級加密貨幣基建,善用廉價能源進行挖礦,並創立明文支持規避制裁的法規架構。伊朗則將能源轉化為加密貨幣結合有系統的資本外逃模式,並且這些模式與地緣政治緊張關係高度相關。

北韓將加密貨幣盜竊產業化,作為創收手段,展現出極高的技術水平。委內瑞拉則證明政府主導的加密貨幣項目可以徹底失效,但基層民間反而視之為遏制通脹的重要工具。這些多樣化經歷凸顯加密貨幣既是全球技術,也是各地受本地狀況影響的工具。具有強大技術基建和政策支持的國家,可以比正經歷衝突或電力短缺的國家,更有效地運用加密貨幣。這說明加密貨幣在規避制裁的實際效用很視乎具體情景,而並非一個普遍適用的方案。

監管回應比批評者預期來得有效,但在執行方面持續面對挑戰。主要交易所的合規措施令伊朗用戶服務互動減少了23%,而Binance的43億美元和解協議則確立了業界標準,令大規模規避制裁的成本大大提高。然而,去中心化替代方案和增強私隱技術的出現,持續對傳統監管方法構成挑戰,使其難以全面應對。更重要的是,被制裁國家正在合作開發替代金融基建,有機會永久改變國際貨幣安排。BRICS Pay發展(佔全球經濟35%),加上如伊朗-俄羅斯合作的黃金擔保穩定幣等數字貨幣項目,暗示加密貨幣正在加速全球去美元化的趨勢,而非僅僅用來戰術性地避開制裁。

對政策制定者而言,這些分析說明加密貨幣監管需在防範制裁規避與維持技術創新之間謹慎取捨。過於嚴厲的取態容易令活動流向監管更寬鬆地區,同時失去技術領先地位。

相反,過於寬鬆亦可能助長規避制裁,削弱外交目標及國際穩定。國際協調的難度尤為突出,因為加密貨幣網絡是全球化運作,然而---regulatory authority remains primarily national. FATF Travel Rule implementation struggles demonstrate the difficulty of achieving consistent standards across diverse jurisdictions, while court decisions limiting government authority over decentralized protocols suggest that traditional regulatory approaches may prove insufficient for comprehensive oversight. For cryptocurrency investors and businesses, the sanctions landscape creates both risks and opportunities that require sophisticated risk management approaches. Compliance costs are rising dramatically, particularly for exchanges and service providers, while regulatory uncertainty creates ongoing challenges for strategic planning.

然而,監管權力依然主要屬於各個國家。FATF「旅行規則」在執行上遇到的困難,顯示在不同司法管轄區之間達到一致標準十分困難;同時,法庭裁決限制政府對去中心化協議的權力,亦反映傳統監管手法可能不足以全面監督這個領域。對於加密貨幣投資者和企業來說,制裁環境同時帶來風險與機遇,需要用高度成熟的風險管理策略去應對。合規成本急劇上升,尤其是對交易所及服務供應商來說更為明顯,而監管不確定性亦造成策略規劃上的持續挑戰。

However, the growing institutional adoption and clearer regulatory frameworks in major jurisdictions suggest the industry is maturing toward greater stability and legitimacy. Exchange operators face particular challenges in balancing compliance requirements with competitive positioning, as demonstrated by Binance's forced U.S. exit and the ongoing compliance burden affecting smaller platforms. The trend toward geo-blocking and enhanced sanctions screening appears likely to continue, potentially creating fragmented markets with different compliance standards and risk profiles. The future trajectory appears likely to involve continued technological competition between privacy enhancement and surveillance capabilities, regulatory arbitrage as businesses seek favorable jurisdictions, and geopolitical competition over alternative payment systems. The outcome will significantly influence both sanctions effectiveness and the broader architecture of international finance.

隨著大型機構積極涉足,以及主要司法管轄區的監管架構愈趨明確,業界正在朝著更高穩定性和合法性發展。交易所營運商面對在符合法規要求和提升競爭力之間找到平衡的重大挑戰——正如幣安被迫退出美國市場,以及持續加重的小型平台合規負擔所展示的現象。地區封鎖(geo-blocking)和加強制裁篩查的趨勢看來將會持續,有可能導致市場分裂,各地持有不同的合規標準與風險特徵。未來的發展大概率會涉及私隱強化與監察科技之間的技術競賽,企業尋求有利司法區的監管套利,以及圍繞替代支付系統的地緣政治競爭。這些結果將深刻影響制裁的效力,以及國際金融架構的方方面面。

The evidence suggests cryptocurrency is neither the sanctions circumvention silver bullet that critics fear nor the irrelevant technical novelty that skeptics dismiss. Instead, it represents one element in a broader transformation of international monetary arrangements that is accelerating geopolitical competition while creating new tools for both state power projection and individual financial autonomy. Success in managing these transitions will require unprecedented coordination between financial regulators, national security agencies, technology policy experts, and international partners.

種種證據指出,加密貨幣並非某些批評者擔心的「繞過制裁的萬能方案」,也不是持懷疑態度的人所說毫無實質用途的技術新玩意。相反,現時的加密貨幣是國際貨幣體制更全面轉型中的組成部分,加速地緣政治競爭之餘,同時為國家展現權力及個人爭取財務自主提供了全新工具。要成功管理這場轉變,前所未有的跨界協調至關重要——包括金融監管機構、國家安全部門、科技政策專家及國際夥伴的合作。

The challenge is compounded by rapid technological development that consistently outpaces regulatory adaptation, creating persistent gaps that sophisticated actors can exploit. The ultimate question may not be whether cryptocurrency enables effective sanctions evasion, but whether traditional sanctions remain effective in a world of increasing financial fragmentation and technological alternatives to established monetary systems. The answer will significantly influence how democratic nations project power internationally while maintaining technological competitiveness and individual freedom in an increasingly complex global environment. The $15.8 billion in sanctioned entity cryptocurrency transactions during 2024 represents both a significant enforcement challenge and a relatively small component of global cryptocurrency activity totaling $10.6 trillion.

這項挑戰更因科技發展速度大幅超前監管演變而加劇,導致持續存在被熟練份子利用的制度空隙。問題的關鍵,或許已不只是加密貨幣能否有效幫助逃避制裁,反而變成在全球金融日益分化,以及傳統貨幣體系出現科技替代選項的世界裡,傳統制裁本身是否還有實質效力。這個答案將直接影響民主國家如何在國際上發揮影響力,同時維持科技競爭力和個人自由,在愈發複雜的全球環境中自處。2024年受制裁實體涉及的加密貨幣交易總值達158億美元,雖然這是一項重大執法挑戰,但在總體加密貨幣活動規模10.6萬億美元之下,其實只是佔很小比例。

This proportion suggests that cryptocurrency's primary impact may be in enabling incremental changes that accumulate over time rather than dramatic immediate shifts in sanctions effectiveness. As this technological and regulatory evolution continues, success will likely require approaches that embrace cryptocurrency's benefits while mitigating its risks through sophisticated technical understanding, international cooperation, and adaptive governance frameworks that can evolve alongside rapidly advancing technology.

這比例顯示,加密貨幣的主要影響,或許是在長期累積漸進式變化,而非即時令制裁效果出現巨大轉變。隨著科技和監管不斷演進,未來的成功路徑,預料是需要既能善用加密貨幣帶來的好處、同時以高技術水平、國際合作及適應性治理框架妥善管控其風險,並與快速進步的科技共同成長。

免責聲明及風險提示: 本文資訊僅供教育與參考之用,並基於作者意見,並不構成金融、投資、法律或稅務建議。 加密貨幣資產具高度波動性並伴隨高風險,可能導致投資大幅虧損或全部損失,並非適合所有投資者。 文章內容僅代表作者觀點,不代表 Yellow、創辦人或管理層立場。 投資前請務必自行徹底研究(D.Y.O.R.),並諮詢持牌金融專業人士。
受制裁國家的加密貨幣:被限制國家的比特幣與穩定幣應用 | Yellow.com