USDT, USDC, and Beyond: Stablecoin Adoption and Regulation Across the Globe in 2025

Stablecoins, the digital tokens designed to hold steady value, have exploded into a cornerstone of the cryptocurrency market worldwide. Once a niche tool for crypto traders, these dollar-pegged coins are now facilitating everything from everyday payments in Nigeria to billion-dollar trades on Wall Street. Their combined transaction volume hit $27.6 trillion last year – surpassing the annual volumes of Visa and Mastercard combined.

As stablecoin usage soars, governments are rushing to impose rules: the U.S. Senate recently passed landmark legislation to regulate dollar stablecoins, while Europe and Asia are rolling out their own frameworks. In this article we at what’s happening with stablecoins today – examining their adoption across industries and countries, the major stablecoin players and latest developments, and how regulators are responding – in an Associated Press-style comprehensive review of the state of stablecoins in 2025.

What Are Stablecoins and Why Do They Matter?

Stablecoins are a class of cryptocurrency pegged to reserve assets like fiat currency or commodities, aiming to maintain a stable value. Most are tied 1-to-1 to major currencies such as the U.S. dollar or euro, while some track assets like gold. By design, stablecoins avoid the wild price swings of Bitcoin and other crypto, making them a reliable medium of exchange and store of value in the otherwise volatile crypto economy. As a World Economic Forum paper notes, a stablecoin is essentially issued with a promise to keep its value stable relative to an external anchor.

The first stablecoins emerged around 2014, with Tether pioneering the model of a dollar-backed crypto token. In practice, an issuer like Tether or Circle holds reserves – e.g. cash or U.S. Treasury bills – and issues an equivalent amount of tokens on a blockchain. Users can always redeem 1 token for $1 (or the pegged asset), which theoretically keeps the price at $1. Some stablecoins use algorithms or crypto collateral instead of fiat reserves (notably TerraUSD before its collapse), but the dominant players today are fiat-backed stablecoins due to their relative reliability.

Why have stablecoins become so popular? In short, they bridge the divide between traditional money and the crypto world. Their price stability lets people transact in crypto without worrying about sudden value drops. For example, 1 USDC or USDT is meant to stay $1 today, tomorrow, next year – unlike Bitcoin which might swing 10% in a day. This stability makes stablecoins ideal for payments, remittances, and savings in digital form. They serve as “digital cash”: easy to send globally like crypto, yet as stable as the dollar or other fiat currency they mirror.

“Stablecoins are a proxy for the dollar,” explains Chris Maurice, CEO of African crypto exchange Yellow Card. In regions with unstable local currencies, holding a token like USDT effectively lets people hold U.S. dollars on their phone. In advanced economies, stablecoins enable instant, 24/7 payments that traditional banking can’t match. They also underpin much of the crypto trading and decentralized finance markets by providing a stable unit of account.

A Global Surge in Stablecoin Usage

Stablecoins have seen astonishing growth in recent years, becoming integral to the crypto ecosystem and even affecting traditional finance. The supply of stablecoins in circulation climbed 28% year-over-year, and by 2024 their total transaction volume reached $27.6 trillion, according to industry analytics – exceeding the annual volume of Visa plus Mastercard. These figures underscore how ubiquitous stablecoins have become for moving money.

Today, Tether is by far the largest stablecoin, with a market capitalization over $150 billion (as of mid-2025). Launched in 2014, USDT is available on multiple blockchains (Ethereum, Tron, Solana and others) and dominates global stablecoin trade. The second-largest is USD Coin, created by Circle, with a market cap above $60 billion. Together these two account for the lion’s share of the $250+ billion stablecoin market. For perspective, in early 2023 USDC had about $37B in supply vs. Tether’s $72B; since then Tether’s lead has widened amid shifting user preferences.

Regional adoption patterns differ. Most USDT activity occurs in Asia and Europe, whereas USDC is used more in North America. This reflects how traders in East Asia, for instance, have embraced Tether as a dollar substitute for years – even in markets like China where direct access to USD is restricted, offshore USDT trading is popular. By contrast, U.S. institutions and exchanges often favor USDC for its stricter regulatory compliance. Geography also shapes currency preference: while USD-pegged coins dominate globally (the U.S. dollar remains the world’s reserve currency), there are stablecoins linked to other currencies too – e.g. EURC (Euro Coin) for euros, GYEN for Japanese yen, XCHF for Swiss franc. These non-USD stablecoins are smaller but growing as the concept spreads worldwide.

Stablecoins now form a huge share of crypto transactions in many regions. In Central and Western Europe, for example, stablecoins accounted for almost half of all cryptocurrency transaction volume (by value) between mid-2023 and mid-2024. Chainalysis data shows that in Europe, stablecoin usage grew2.5 times faster than in North America for sub $1 million transfers, pointing to robust retail and business uptake. In the UK and EU, stablecoins make up 60–80% of crypto payment services each quarter, indicating many businesses and individuals prefer transacting in stable value tokens rather than volatile coins. Even for small purchases or remittances, stablecoins are increasingly the go-to crypto asset.

Emerging markets are driving much of the surge. Across Africa and Latin America, stablecoins have become a financial lifeline amid inflation and currency crises. Sub-Saharan Africa now leads the world in stablecoin adoption at 9.3% of residents, with Nigeria topping global rankings – 11.9% of Nigerians (25.9 million people) use stablecoins, according to a 2025 report. The region’s total crypto transaction volume is about 43% stablecoins, reflecting heavy usage. The primary reason is economic necessity: “About 70% of African countries are facing an FX shortage,” says Maurice of Yellow Card. “Businesses are struggling to get U.S. dollars… Stablecoins provide an opportunity for these businesses to continue to operate” despite scarce hard currency. When Nigeria’s naira or Ethiopia’s birr plummet in value, people swiftly convert savings to USD stablecoins to preserve wealth. Small importers in Africa buy goods overseas by acquiring USDT/USDC and paying suppliers, bypassing dysfunctional bank forex systems.

In Argentina, where annual inflation hit 143% in late 2024, citizens similarly turned to stablecoins as a hedge. Argentine businesses and consumers unable to access U.S. dollars use stablecoins to protect earnings from devaluation and settle trade deals. “Much like consumers in Argentina who can’t get access to dollars… businesses are tapping into global trade flow by using stablecoins for payments,” observes Chris Harmse of UK fintech BVNK. From Buenos Aires to Lagos, stablecoins are effectively enabling a form of digital dollarization – granting people a stable currency in economies where the local money is anything but stable.

Even in advanced economies, stablecoins are gaining mainstream traction. A sign of their growth: the average monthly stablecoin inflows in Europe now reach $10–15 billion, and stablecoins have overtaken Bitcoin as the most widely received cryptocurrency on African exchanges in recent months. Globally, the stablecoin market swelled to roughly $256 billion in capitalization by mid-2025, and large issuers have become significant players in traditional financial markets. About 80% of stablecoin reserve assets are parked in U.S. Treasuries or similar instruments – roughly $200 billion in Treasuries – meaning stablecoin issuers have quietly become major buyers of government debt. In fact, Tether Ltd. recently disclosed it holds over $120 billion of U.S. Treasury bills, making it the fifth-largest holder of U.S. Treasuries worldwide. This underscores how stablecoins are no longer just a crypto novelty; they’re entwined with global financial flows. “Stablecoins have become an integral asset class of cryptocurrencies,” notes the World Economic Forum, and their influence now extends well beyond the crypto realm.

The Major Stablecoins: Latest Developments

Dozens of stablecoins exist, but a handful of USD-pegged tokens dominate usage. Here we review the most popular stablecoins and the latest news around each:

Tether (USDT) – The Dominant Dollar Token

USDT is the original and still reigning stablecoin heavyweight. Issued by Tether Limited since 2014, USDT is pegged 1:1 to the U.S. dollar and circulates on multiple chains (most heavily on Ethereum and Tron). As of 2025, Tether’s market cap stands around $150–160 billion, accounting for roughly 60%+ of all stablecoin value. Its growth has been spectacular – doubling from about $70 billion in early 2023 to over $140B by 2025 – as it filled demand when rivals stumbled. USDT’s daily trading volume often rivals that of Bitcoin, reflecting its role as the de facto liquidity engine of crypto markets.

Despite its dominance, Tether has long faced scrutiny over its reserves and transparency. For years, skeptics questioned whether every USDT was truly backed by $1 in safe assets. Tether settled U.S. regulatory cases in 2021 after investigations found it had misled about reserves and lacked full backing at times; it paid a $41 million fine to the CFTC over those issues. Since then, Tether claims to have bolstered its reserves, holding the majority in short-term U.S. Treasury bills, cash, and other liquid collateral. Executives say the firm earned enormous profits from interest on its Treasury holdings in the high-rate environment of 2023–24. By mid-2025 Tether even announced it was among the top buyers of U.S. government debt, underscoring its financial heft. However, transparency remains a concern – Tether provides quarterly attestations but still does not undergo full public audits, drawing criticism from regulators and analysts.

USDT’s geographic stronghold is in Asia and emerging markets. It is heavily used on exchanges serving Chinese and Asian customers, often as a dollar substitute for trading crypto or storing value offshore. In countries like Turkey, Venezuela, and Nigeria, USDT is popular for protecting against local currency inflation (traders swap devaluing lira/bolivar/naira for Tether’s stable dollars). Notably, even though China bans cryptocurrency trading, underground markets persist where people trade yuan for USDT to move money abroad – giving Tether a unique role in global capital flows. Tether’s widespread use in regions with less regulatory oversight partly explains how it can operate from offshore jurisdictions and grow despite scrutiny in the U.S. “The irony is the more conservative, compliant stablecoin issuers became easier targets [for regulators]. In contrast, Tether, the largest stablecoin and also regarded as riskiest, is largely offshore,” observed Ledger Insights when U.S. regulators cracked down on a rival in 2023.

Recent developments: Tether has been riding a wave of renewed dominance. After a competitor’s setback in 2023 (the temporary depegging of USDC, discussed below), many crypto users flocked back to the relatively higher-liquidity USDT, pushing its market share up. Tether’s issuer says it now maintains one of the most liquid reserve portfolios in the industry, composed mostly of cash equivalents. In a June 2025 statement, Tether said it “already holds over $120B in U.S. Treasuries” and emphasized its commitment to highly liquid reserves. The company also signaled plans to diversify some reserves into Bitcoin – committing a portion of profits to buy BTC – a move that drew both praise (for potential upside) and concern (for introducing volatility into reserves). So far, USDT has maintained its peg reliably, even amid market stresses. It dipped only briefly ($0.97) during the market panic of May 2022 and quickly recovered, reinforcing user confidence. However, Tether remains unregulated by any major government (it’s incorporated in the British Virgin Islands) and uninsured, so its long-term stability rests largely on the issuer’s credibility and asset management. Any major loss of confidence in Tether could pose systemic risk to crypto markets, a fact that keeps regulators watchful.

USD Coin (USDC) – A Coinbase and Circle Collaboration

USD Coin (USDC) is the second-largest stablecoin, co-founded by Circle Internet Financial and Coinbase in 2018 under the Centre Consortium. USDC was built with a focus on transparency and regulatory compliance, aiming to be the “trusted” dollar stablecoin for institutions. As of early 2025, USDC’s market cap is around $58–62 billion. It is fully reserved with a mix of cash and short-term U.S. Treasuries, held with U.S.-regulated financial partners. Each month, Circle publishes attestations from a major accounting firm verifying the reserves equal or exceed the USDC in circulation. Circle even created a dedicated Circle Reserve Fund managed by BlackRock for the Treasury holdings, adding another layer of oversight. This approach has made USDC popular among corporate and U.S. users who prioritize safety and compliance – for example, many American crypto companies use USDC for treasury and payments, and MoneyGram and Visa have integrated USDC for settlement in pilot programs.

USDC has generally maintained a very tight 1:1 peg to the dollar. However, in March 2023, USDC faced a serious stress test during the U.S. banking turmoil. Circle revealed that $3.3 billion of USDC’s cash reserves were stuck at Silicon Valley Bank, which had suddenly failed. Fear spread that USDC might not be fully redeemable, and the token broke its peg, plunging as low as $0.88 on March 11, 2023. Circle publicly assured it would cover any shortfall and that USDC remained redeemable 1:1, and U.S. regulators’ decision to backstop SVB’s deposits ultimately calmed the markets. By Monday, USDC redemptions resumed and the coin climbed back to $1.00, but the incident undermined confidence. “No matter how sound Circle’s operations are, this sort of depeg tends to fundamentally undermine confidence,” one analyst noted during the scare. Indeed, USDC’s market share fell in the aftermath – dropping from about $40B to $30B as some users switched to Tether or other options.

Circle took lessons from that episode: it moved all reserve cash to larger banks and the Fed’s reverse repo facility via BlackRock’s fund, to avoid single-bank risk. By 2024, USDC stabilized and Circle continued expanding its reach. USDC is widely used in U.S. regulated exchanges and fintech apps, and sees heavy volume in DeFi protocols due to its reliability. Circle has also launched Euro Coin for euro-denominated stable value, though EURC remains much smaller. In a sign of the times, Circle went public on the New York Stock Exchange in June 2025 (after a previous SPAC attempt fell through). Following the U.S. Senate’s passage of a stablecoin bill, Circle’s newly listed stock surged amid optimism for compliant stablecoins, gaining over 12% in a day. Circle’s CEO hailed pending regulation as an opportunity for “full-reserve digital dollars” to proliferate with government blessing.

Recent news: With regulatory clarity on the horizon in the U.S., USDC stands to benefit as a “model citizen” stablecoin. It already adheres to many of the expected rules – e.g. holding 1:1 safe reserves, monthly disclosures. Circle has been actively courting government and financial industry partnerships. For instance, Bank of America and Stripe have hinted at stablecoin initiatives involving USDC. Circle also partnered with Apple Pay and others to enable USDC payments in traditional contexts. Although USDC’s growth slowed in 2023, it resumed modest growth in 2024 and now, buoyed by potential federal endorsement, USDC’s market share is creeping back up (recently 24%, from 22% earlier in 2025). Circle argues stablecoins like USDC can serve the unbanked and improve remittances, aligning with financial inclusion goals. The coming year will test whether USDC can challenge Tether’s global dominance or if it will remain the preferred stablecoin within regulated markets and fiat on-ramps.

Binance USD (BUSD) – Rise and Regulatory Halt

BUSD, the Binance USD stablecoin, provides a cautionary tale of regulatory risk. Launched in 2019 by Paxos Trust in partnership with Binance, BUSD was a USD-backed stablecoin approved by the New York Department of Financial Services (NYDFS). It grew rapidly thanks to its association with Binance – the world’s largest crypto exchange – reaching a market cap over $20 billion by late 2022. By early 2023, BUSD was the third-largest stablecoin and widely used on Binance’s platform (Binance even auto-converted other stablecoins into BUSD for a time to concentrate liquidity). However, in February 2023, BUSD’s trajectory reversed sharply.

NYDFS ordered Paxos to halt issuance of new BUSD tokens effective Feb. 21, 2023, citing “unresolved issues” in Paxos’ oversight of its relationship with Binance. In parallel, the U.S. SEC issued Paxos a Wells notice indicating the SEC viewed BUSD as an unregistered security (an allegation Paxos disputed). Paxos, as a regulated New York trust company, complied with the NYDFS directive. It assured customers that BUSD would remain fully redeemable 1:1 for USD at least through Feb. 2024 and that reserves were safe. But with no new minting, BUSD’s market cap began a steady decline, essentially only shrinking “over time” going forward. Within a few months, BUSD in circulation fell by more than 70%, dropping from $16B to around $4–5B by mid-2023. By mid-2024, Binance and Paxos wound down support – Binance stopped trading pairs in BUSD, and Paxos planned to cease redemptions after ensuring holders could cash out their tokens.

The regulatory action against BUSD was striking because Paxos was known for its conservative, compliant approach. Unlike Tether, Paxos held BUSD reserves entirely in U.S. Treasuries and cash and underwent NYDFS audits. Observers speculated the Binance branding and the possibility of commingled oversight issues triggered the clampdown. As Ledger Insights noted, “the more conservative stablecoin issuers [like Paxos] are easier targets because they desire to be compliant,” whereas offshore players were beyond U.S. jurisdiction. Indeed, the crackdown appeared aimed at indirectly reining in Binance (which was facing broader U.S. scrutiny) by cutting off its dollar token. In the end, no consumer losses occurred – BUSD holders were made whole through redemptions, and by July 2024 the SEC quietly dropped its investigation without pursuing enforcement. But the episode sent a clear message: even fully backed stablecoins can be stopped in their tracks if regulators perceive risks. BUSD’s demise also demonstrates market concentration risk – when Binance users lost their primary stablecoin, many shifted to alternatives like USDT, boosting Tether’s dominance.

MakerDAO’s DAI and Decentralized Stablecoins

Not all stablecoins are issued by centralized firms. DAI is the leading decentralized stablecoin, managed by the MakerDAO protocol on Ethereum. Launched in 2017, DAI is collateralized not by fiat reserves but by crypto assets: users lock cryptocurrencies (like ETH, USDC, etc.) in smart contracts to mint DAI, maintaining over-collateralizatio* to ensure DAI’s value stays $1. DAI’s supply is around $4 billion in 2025, making it the fourth-largest stablecoin. It plays a vital role in DeFi as a trustless dollar token – no single company controls DAI, and it’s governed by a distributed community of MKR token holders.

Over time, MakerDAO has evolved DAI’s model to strengthen its peg stability. Originally backed solely by ETH, DAI expanded to accept diverse collateral (including wrapped Bitcoin and stablecoins like USDC). After the 2022 crypto crashes, Maker increased its resilience by allocating a significant portion of reserves to real-world assets and Treasuries. Today a large chunk of DAI is indirectly backed by USDC (which the protocol holds as collateral) and by yield-bearing vaults invested in short-term bonds. Ironically, this means DAI – conceived as fully decentralized money – now depends partly on centralized assets to stay stable. MakerDAO’s community has hotly debated this trade-off between purity and stability. In 2023–24, Maker initiated an “Endgame” plan to eventually reduce reliance on USDC and even explore letting DAI’s peg float in the distant future, but for now DAI remains roughly 1:1 with USD. MakerDAO also introduced the DAI Savings Rate, currently around 3.3%, sharing revenue from its real-world investments with DAI holders to incentivize holding DAI.

Algorithmic stablecoins – which maintain pegs via algorithms or arbitrage rather than full collateral – are another category, but one that suffered a major blow with the collapse of TerraUSD (UST). UST, an algorithmic dollar stablecoin on Terra blockchain, grew to a $18+ billion market cap by early 2022, then infamously imploded in May 2022, wiping out billions in value. Its failure (losing its $1 peg and spiraling to near-zero) showed the dangers of under-collateralized designs. The Terra debacle shattered confidence in purely algorithmic stabilizers; since then, most new stablecoins have opted for robust collateral models. Even so, a few projects persist. Frax (FRAX) introduced a semi-algorithmic coin partially backed by collateral, which has held its peg relatively well with supply in the low billions. USDD, an algorithmic stablecoin on Tron network launched by Justin Sun, aims to maintain a $1 peg via crypto reserves and intervention; it briefly lost peg to $0.97 in late 2022 and now has a smaller $400M supply. These alternatives remain niche compared to giants like USDT/USDC.

In DeFi, 2023–2024 saw some innovative stablecoin launches: e.g., Aave’s GHO, a decentralized over-collateralized stablecoin by the Aave lending protocol; Curve Finance’s crvUSD, which uses a novel AMM-based peg mechanism; and Ethena Labs’ USDe, a synthetic stablecoin reportedly backed by a combination of on-chain derivatives and real-world assets. Notably, by mid-2025, Ethena’s USDe has grown to a $5.65B market cap (about 2.25% of the stablecoin market) and is gaining traction, indicating room for new players with hybrid designs. These DeFi-native stablecoins are important for keeping the ecosystem decentralized – for example, DAI and USDe provide non-bank alternatives if regulators clamp down on fiat-backed coins. However, regulators are paying attention here too; MiCA in Europe and U.S. bills define “asset-referenced tokens” broadly, potentially covering algorithmic coins.

In summary, decentralized stablecoins like DAI offer censorship-resistant digital dollars critical for open finance, but they currently constitute a small fraction of the overall stablecoin supply. Terra’s collapse serves as a reminder of the importance of reserves – regulatory efforts now insist on full reserve backing to avoid another UST scenario. Going forward, the stablecoin sector may bifurcate into regulated fiat-backed coins (like USDC, coming bank coins) and decentralized crypto-backed coins, each serving different user preferences and risk appetites.

New Entrants: PayPal’s PYUSD and Other Corporate Stablecoins

A significant recent trend is traditional financial and tech companies issuing their own stablecoins. Perhaps the most prominent example is PayPal USD, launched in August 2023 by the payments giant PayPal. PYUSD is a dollar stablecoin issued by Paxos Trust (the same regulated issuer behind BUSD and USDP) on Ethereum, fully backed by U.S. dollar deposits and Treasuries. PayPal introduced it as a way for PayPal users to seamlessly buy, sell, hold, and send dollars on blockchain. The move was hailed as a watershed moment: one of the biggest mainstream fintech firms embracing crypto technology. PYUSD’s adoption has been gradual – by mid-2025 its circulation is just under $1 billion – but PayPal has millions of users, and the coin is positioned to integrate with online merchants and remittances via PayPal’s network. PayPal’s CEO described the stablecoin as crucial to the company’s vision for faster, borderless payments. Just recently, PayPal partnered with Fiserv, a major payments processor, to explore interoperability so consumers can use PayPal’s PYUSD and Fiserv’s upcoming stablecoin across platforms.

Indeed, Fiserv announced in June 2025 it will launch its own stablecoin called FIUSD by year-end. Fiserv plans to integrate FIUSD into its payment infrastructure at 10,000 banks and 6 million merchants, essentially bringing stablecoin capabilities to a huge swath of the financial system. The coin will be offered at no extra cost to merchants and is intended to reduce payment frictions (even potentially lowering card interchange fees by using blockchain rails). Fiserv is also looking at “deposit tokens” – bank-issued digital dollar tokens that function like stablecoins but sit within the banking system – as a bridge for banks to use stablecoins in a capital-friendly way. This highlights a trend of fintech/banking convergence with stablecoin tech.

Large banks are not far behind. JPMorgan Chase pioneered an internal stablecoin-like token, JPM Coin, for settling institutional transfers back in 2019. In 2025, JPMorgan expanded this concept with JPMD, a new deposit-backed digital dollar token for corporate clients**, to streamline daily settlements. Other banks have reportedly shown interest: “I’ve had multiple conversations with the largest banks in the world wanting a stablecoin. They’re calling us saying: ‘I need a stablecoin in 8 weeks, how can we get one?’” said Adam Ackermann, head of portfolio management at Paxos, in June 2025. This suggests major banks see stablecoins (or similar tokens) as essential for future payment plumbing, likely due to the benefits of 24/7 instant settlement and programmability.

Outside banking, tech firms and payment networks are exploring stablecoins as well. Stripe, a global payments processor, has signaled plans to integrate stablecoin payouts for online businesses and creators, although it hasn’t launched its own coin. Visa has been testing USDC for settling cross-border transactions on its network since 2021 and in 2023 expanded those pilots with crypto wallets. Mastercard too joined hands with Paxos in 2023 to help banks offer stablecoin trading to customers, and it is involved in projects to settle card payments in stablecoins. These moves indicate that stablecoins are permeating traditional payment systems, not just crypto exchanges.

Regulators have taken note of Big Tech’s interest. One concern raised in the U.S. Senate was that the stablecoin bill does not prevent large tech companies from issuing their own stablecoins. This harkens back to Facebook’s attempted Libra (later Diem) stablecoin project in 2019, which was stymied by regulatory pushback over fears a private tech-issued currency could undermine financial stability. While Libra never launched, the concept survives: if rules allow, giants like Amazon, Google, or Apple might eventually issue branded stablecoins for use in their ecosystems. Policymakers are divided – some welcome innovation, others warn of risks if “Big Tech stablecoins” gain unchecked power. For now, the most notable corporate coins are still PayPal’s PYUSD and upcoming fintech efforts like FIUSD. Their development, under proper licenses, suggests a future where consumers might routinely use a PayPal dollar or bank digital dollar to pay for goods, all riding on stablecoin rails behind the scenes.

Other notable entrants include Paxos’s own USDP (Pax Dollar), a smaller regulated USD token $0.9B supply, and TrueUSD, a stablecoin that saw spikes in usage after Binance promoted it in 2023. TUSD at one point surpassed $2B in circulation when Binance used it as a BUSD substitute, though questions about its banking partners caused temporary suspensions of minting, and it later hovered around $500M. Also of interest, government-related experiments: for example, Hong Kong’s central bank is exploring a HKD-pegged stablecoin in partnership with banks, and some nations consider using stablecoins as a stepping stone to their own central bank digital currencies. Overall, the entry of established financial players signals that stablecoins are moving from the periphery of crypto into the mainstream financial and payments arena.

Use Cases: How Stablecoins Are Used Across Sectors

Originally conceived as a tool for crypto traders, stablecoins today power a variety of use cases across different spheres. Here are the key areas where stablecoin adoption and development are most notable:

• Digital Asset Trading and Market Liquidity: Stablecoins are the lifeblood of cryptocurrency trading. On virtually every exchange, traders use stablecoins like USDT or USDC as a convenient quote currency to swap into and out of volatile crypto assets. This allows them to park value in stable form without leaving the crypto ecosystem. For instance, instead of cashing out to a bank (which can be slow or inaccessible on weekends), a trader can sell Bitcoin for USDT and hold the value steady. Stablecoins have largely replaced traditional fiat on exchanges – many platforms no longer even offer USD bank deposits, relying on stablecoins as the dollar proxy. This has made stablecoins among the most traded assets in the world by volume. In fact, by 2024 stablecoins were handling about $450 billion in transaction volume per month, roughly half of Visa’s monthly volume. During market volatility, investors often flock to stablecoins for safety, causing surges in market cap. For example, during the 2022 crypto crash, overall stablecoin supply initially rose as investors sold risky assets for stable tokens as a safe harbor. In short, stablecoins provide the liquidity and stability that oil the wheels of the crypto markets.

• Decentralized Finance (DeFi): Stablecoins are the backbone of DeFi, enabling lending, borrowing, and yield generation without fiat. On protocols like Aave, Compound, and MakerDAO, users lend stablecoins to earn interest or borrow stablecoins against collateral. DeFi stablecoin lending markets often have tens of billions in liquidity. Stablecoins are also critical for decentralized exchanges (DEXs) – many trading pairs on Uniswap or Curve involve a stablecoin (e.g., ETH/USDC) to minimize volatility and impermanent loss. In fact, specialized DEXes like Curve have pools composed entirely of stablecoins, allowing low-slippage swaps between different dollar tokens. According to industry data, stablecoins represent a significant portion of total value locked (TVL) in DeFi. For example, Curve’s pools for euro stablecoins (like stEUR/agEUR) and bridged USDC on Layer-2 networks grew substantially by 2025. DeFi projects have also launched their own stablecoins (as discussed, like DAI, GHO, crvUSD) to strengthen ecosystem independence from centralized coins. These decentralized stablecoins facilitate truly on-chain financial services, from derivatives to savings accounts, while insulating users from crypto market swings. However, DeFi stablecoins can face volatility during extreme events – e.g. even DAI wavered to $0.97 briefly during the March 2023 USDC panic due to its USDC collateral, showing the interconnected risks.

• Payments and Remittances: One of the most promising use cases is using stablecoins for payments – especially cross-border remittances and transfers. Stablecoins enable sending money globally at any time within minutes, for fees often just a few cents, far outperforming traditional remittance channels. This is transforming remittances in regions like Africa and Latin America. For example, in Nigeria many people now use stablecoins to send funds to family abroad or receive payments from overseas, avoiding the high fees of Western Union or bank wires. “Cross-border remittances are a major use case for stablecoins in Nigeria… It’s much faster and more affordable,” notes Moyo Sodipo of Nigerian exchange Busha. Chainalysis found that sending a$200 remittance via stablecoin is about 60% cheaper on average for Sub-Saharan Africa than using fiat remittance services. The speed is also superior – a stablecoin transfer typically settles in seconds to minutes on blockchain, whereas an international bank transfer can take days. This has led diaspora communities and even aid organizations to adopt stablecoins for moving funds. We are also seeing fintech collaborations: e.g., MoneyGram teamed up with Stellar network to let users convert cash to USDC and vice versa at MoneyGram locations, blending physical and digital for remittances. That service, rolled out in 2022–23, allows someone to deposit local cash and have their relative withdraw as cash in another country, with USDC doing the value transfer under the hood.

Beyond remittances, stablecoins are entering everyday payments and commerce. Merchants in some countries now accept USDT/USDC for goods – from retail shops in Venezuela to tech freelancers globally taking payment in stablecoins. Stablecoin payment processors (like BitPay, Circle’s APIs, or BVNK in Europe) help convert stablecoin payments to local currency for merchants, mitigating volatility. In the U.K., companies like BVNK provide gateways for businesses to accept stablecoin from customers and settle in fiat if desired. Micropayments and gig economy pay are another area: freelancers and remote workers are increasingly paid in stablecoins, especially when banking options are limited or when working for overseas employers. The appeal is immediate receipt of funds and avoidance of hefty currency conversion fees. For instance, a Filipino virtual assistant working for a U.S. client can be paid in USDC online and swap to local pesos as needed, sidestepping delays and fees of international banking.

• Business Transactions and Cross-Border Trade: Stablecoins are finding a role in B2B uses, facilitating faster and cheaper settlements for companies. As noted, firms in countries with capital controls or dollar shortages use stablecoins to pay suppliers abroad. A major food importer in Africa, for example, might pay an Asian exporter in USDC, because opening a dollar letter of credit via banks is too slow or impossible due to foreign currency scarcity. Even large multinational corporations have dabbled in stablecoins for treasury operations – using them to shuffle funds between subsidiaries instantly. Stablecoins can also reduce counterparty risk in business deals: rather than relying on credit terms, a buyer can send a stablecoin that the seller knows is fully reserved and redeemable. In 2024, JPMorgan’s Onyx division reported a 15% rise in stablecoin use for cross-border B2B payments, as companies found it a useful alternative to SWIFT for smaller-value international transfers. The report noted that stablecoins were beginning to replace traditional wires in certain low-value, high-volume payment corridors.

  Settlements and trading among financial institutions are another sphere: Banks like Signature (before its closure) and Silvergate had internal token systems for instant settlements; now, stablecoins might fill that gap. Some brokerage firms and institutional trading platforms use stablecoins to move funds 24/7 between trading venues. There’s also growth in using stablecoins for commodities and trade finance. While still early, there have been pilot transactions where commodities like oil or grain were paid for with stablecoins, streamlining the process.

• Hedge Against Inflation and Dollar Substitute: As discussed in regional context, stablecoins have become a critical hedge for individuals in high-inflation economies. In places like Argentina, Turkey, Nigeria, and Lebanon, people have turned to stablecoins to protect savings from currency freefall. With smartphones and crypto wallets, average citizens can effectively hold U.S. dollars (via USDT/USDC) even if their government restricts access to foreign currency. This role of stablecoins as “store-of-value lite” has seen uptake by everyone from taxi drivers in Buenos Aires to small shop owners in Ankara. They may accept stablecoins as payment or convert excess local cash to stablecoins daily.

In Lebanon’s economic crisis, USDT on the Tron network (chosen for low fees) became a popular way to get money in and out of the country as the banking system seized up. Thus stablecoins are functioning as an alternative to dollar cash in regions where physical dollars are scarce or banking is broken. Unlike a bank account that can be frozen or a stack of USD that can be stolen, a stablecoin wallet (if properly secured) offers some resilience – though users do face crypto-specific risks like losing private keys. This use case has drawn attention of central banks, as effectively it is dollarization via crypto, which could undermine local monetary policy. Nonetheless, for individuals in economic turmoil, the benefit of stability outweighs those macro concerns – making stablecoins incredibly valuable on a personal level.

• Serving the Unbanked and Underbanked: Stablecoins also have potential to expand financial access. Over 1 billion people globally lack bank accounts, but many have mobile phones. Stablecoins can enable them to store money, make payments, and access basic financial services without a bank. Projects in Latin America and Africa are leveraging stablecoins for humanitarian aid distribution, microloans, and savings programs. For instance, a refugee with no bank access can receive aid in a dollar stablecoin, spend it via mobile apps, or convert to local cash through peer networks. Both Tether and Circle have highlighted how their stablecoins are used by people in emerging markets who are underbanked. Of course, challenges remain – such users need a user-friendly interface and reliable on/off ramps to local currency. But companies and NGOs are working on simplifying crypto wallets and integrating with local mobile money agents. If successful, stablecoins could help bring millions into a form of modern financial system, bridging a gap where traditional banks have failed or left communities behind.

• Programmable Money and New Innovations: Because stablecoins are digital and often run on smart contract platforms, they are programmable money. This opens up use cases not possible with cash or traditional electronic money. For example, businesses can program payments to occur automatically when conditions are met (like an escrow that releases stablecoin funds when a shipment delivery is confirmed). Insurance payouts could be automated via stablecoin smart contracts triggering on an event (parametric insurance). We also see stablecoins powering blockchain-based gaming and NFTs, where in-game currencies or marketplaces use stablecoins to denominate prices, ensuring that real-world value of in-game assets is stable. Micropayments for content (paying a few cents to read an article or stream video) become feasible with low-fee stablecoins in a way that credit card fees make impractical. In decentralized social networks, creators might earn stablecoin tips from followers globally, instantly. All these point to how stablecoins enable new economic interactions online, thanks to their stability combined with crypto’s open accessibility.

In summary, stablecoins have evolved far beyond a traders’ tool – they are now enabling *faster financial transactions, greater inclusion, and novel digital business models across the globe. As usage grows in each of these spheres, the lines between traditional finance and crypto blur: a small business may settle an invoice via stablecoin without thinking of it as “crypto”; a family may receive remittances in stablecoin that they cash out in their village. The technology is embedding itself in the plumbing of finance and commerce.

The Regulatory Landscape: Global Developments and Challenges

The rapid rise of stablecoins – essentially digital dollars outside traditional banking – has prompted regulators worldwide to respond. Concerns over financial stability, consumer protection, and illicit use are driving a flurry of regulatory developments. Here’s a look at how different jurisdictions are approaching stablecoin oversight:

United States: From Uncertainty to a Landmark Bill

For years, U.S. regulators grappled with stablecoins using existing laws, but without a comprehensive framework. That left issuers in a gray area – some like Circle and Paxos sought state licenses (e.g. New York Trust charters) and stuck to strict reserve practices, while others like Tether operated offshore. Agencies like the SEC and CFTC occasionally took action (fining Tether in 2021 for past misrepresentations, or investigating Paxos’ BUSD in 2023), but there were no clear federal rules specifically for stablecoins.

In June 2025, a breakthrough came: the U.S. Senate passed the bipartisan “GENIUS Act” to regulate stablecoins, marking the first major crypto legislation to advance in Congress. This bill – seen as a “watershed moment” for the industry – creates federal standards for payment stablecoins (stablecoins pegged to the dollar). It requires that any USD stablecoin must be fully backed by highly liquid assets like cash or short-term Treasuries, and issuers must maintain 1:1 reserves at all times and monthly public disclosures of those reserves. These guardrails aim to ensure a run on a stablecoin won’t leave consumers holding worthless tokens, as happened in the Terra-Luna collapse of 2022. Effectively, issuers would operate like narrow banks or money market funds, holding only safe assets to back the coins.

The Senate bill also addresses who can issue stablecoins: it sets prudential requirements and FDIC-insured status for issuers (meaning only regulated institutions that could qualify for federal insurance on deposits). Real-time redemption is mandated – users must be able to redeem stablecoins for actual dollars on demand. The legislation was driven in part by the view that stablecoins, if properly regulated, could bolster U.S. dollar supremacy in the digital era. Treasury Secretary Scott Bessent told Congress this could help the USD stablecoin market grow nearly eightfold to $2 trillion in the next decade. Lawmakers in favor say it will “legitimize the asset class” and integrate stablecoins into the financial system with confidence. As one put it, “For too long, stablecoins have operated in a regulatory gray area… The GENIUS Act changes that by creating guardrails for responsible innovation”.

However, the bill hasn’t become law yet – it passed the Senate 68-30 with bipartisan support, but still needs approval by the House of Representatives (Republican-controlled) and then the President’s signature. Given President Donald Trump’s administration has generally been pro-crypto (Trump’s own businesses have even launched a stablecoin, raising conflict-of-interest debates), many expect the bill or a similar version will become law within 2025. There was political drama: some Democrats like Senator Elizabeth Warren opposed the bill fiercely, arguing it “turbocharges the stablecoin market, while facilitating the president’s corruption and undermining financial stability and consumer protection”. They pointed to Trump’s family ties to a stablecoin company and demanded stricter anti-money laundering rules and bans on foreign issuers in the legislation. Those issues may be revisited in the House version.

Assuming a law passes, the U.S. would move from an uncertain patchwork to a clear regime: stablecoins would be treated effectively as a new category of regulated financial product – neither exactly bank deposits nor securities, but with elements of both. Oversight might fall jointly to banking regulators (for issuer licensing) and perhaps the Federal Reserve (for systemic stablecoins oversight). The prospect of legal clarity has already influenced the market: U.S.-regulated stablecoins like USDC and new ones like PayPal’s PYUSD are aligning with expected rules, and even Tether’s issuer has touted its large reserve of Treasuries as if to fit in the mold (though Tether itself might not seek U.S. approval). Crypto exchanges are anticipating that only compliant stablecoins will be allowed for U.S. users if a law passes – so some have proactively shifted listings toward regulated coins.

It’s also worth noting state-level actions: even before federal law, some U.S. states advanced their own rules. New York’s NYDFS has strict oversight for any stablecoin issued under its regime (requiring audits, reserve attestations – Paxos’ BUSD had this until halted). Some other states have stablecoin sections in their money transmitter laws or are passing crypto-specific bills. But a federal law would supersede these, likely creating a unified market. U.S. regulators like the Federal Reserve have voiced concern about stablecoins’ potential to scale rapidly and possibly disrupt bank deposit funding. Fed Chair Jerome Powell in 2023 said stablecoins should have the same level of regulation as bank money if they become widely used. The GENIUS Act in effect moves in that direction by only allowing insured depository-type institutions (or similarly supervised entities) to issue these tokens.

In the interim, U.S. agencies are still active: the SEC under Gary Gensler has hinted it views some stablecoins as securities in certain contexts, and the Treasury has led discussions in the President’s Working Group calling for stablecoin issuers to be regulated like banks. But the legislative momentum suggests the U.S. is on the path to explicitly legalizing and channeling stablecoins into the regulated financial system, rather than banning them. This is a positive sign for industry proponents who argue clarity will allow stablecoins to flourish safely in everyday commerce.

Europe: MiCA Brings Stablecoins into Oversight

The European Union has taken a proactive stance with its comprehensive Markets in Crypto-Assets (MiCA) regulation. MiCA, passed in 2023, began phasing in during 2024 and establishes a full framework for crypto assets including stablecoins (which it terms “asset-referenced tokens” and “e-money tokens” depending on whether they reference multiple assets or a single fiat). As of June 2024, MiCA’s stablecoin provisions officially took effect, making the EU one of the first jurisdictions with tailored stablecoin rules.

Under MiCA, any stablecoin pegged to a single fiat currency (like a euro stablecoin or dollar stablecoin) is considered an “e-money token” (EMT) and must be issued by a credit institution or an entity that gets a special license. Essentially, it treats stablecoins similarly to e-money. Issuers must have permanently available reserves 1:1, rights for holders to redeem at any time, and they cannot pay interest to holders (to prevent stablecoins from competing as interest-bearing accounts). For “asset-referenced tokens” (ARTs), which might reference a basket of currencies or commodities, there are additional rules and supervision (though in practice most current stablecoins are single-currency). MiCA also imposes volume caps on large stablecoins used for payments: if an EMT that is not denominated in euros (e.g. a USD stablecoin) is used above a certain volume – roughly €200 million in transactions per day – for three months, regulators could order limits on its activity in the EU. This provision was motivated by concern that a foreign currency stablecoin (like USDT) might become too prevalent in Euro-zone payments, potentially undermining the euro. It effectively forces non-euro stablecoin issuers to monitor and potentially restrain their token’s usage in Europe.

Compliance and impact: By end of 2024, stablecoin issuers serving Europe must register under MiCA. Some adjusted preemptively – Circle obtained a French crypto license, positioning to offer EUROC and USDC under MiCA’s regime. Binance, however, announced it would cease supporting its own BUSD in Europe given MiCA and instead pivot to euro-denominated stablecoins for EU users. There are reports that certain exchanges in Europe delisted USDT for European customers ahead of MiCA enforcement, given USDT’s issuer had not sought EU authorization. This caused shifts in liquidity: e.g., Curve’s euro stablecoin pools saw more volume as EU users swapped to EURe or agEUR (Euro stablecoins), though those are still relatively small (€10M combined market cap). It suggests a possible fragmentation where, within Europe, euro-backed stablecoins might gain preference due to regulatory ease, while dollar stablecoins could face frictions unless issuers go through EU registration.

MiCA also mandates high transparency – quarterly reserve reports, audit rights for regulators, etc. and has capital requirements for issuers. The European Banking Authority will supervise significant stablecoin issuers. Overall, the EU’s approach is to integrate stablecoins into the existing financial regulatory perimeter: treat them akin to bank money when used widely, mitigate risks, but allow innovation within those bounds. Consumer protection is a focus – clear rights to redeem, liability on issuers for losses, and disclosures of how the peg is kept.

Individual European countries largely align with MiCA now, but some had interim measures: Germany had earlier said stablecoins shouldn’t replace the euro, France had guidelines requiring stablecoin projects to be approved by the central bank, etc. Those will yield to the unified MiCA rules. The UK, post-Brexit, is forging its own path: In 2023 the UK passed the Financial Services and Markets Act, which included bringing “stable tokens” used for payments into the Bank of England’s supervision. The UK intends for certain stablecoins to be recognized as a valid form of digital settlement. In 2024, HM Treasury consulted on a regime to oversee stablecoin issuers and potentially designate systemic stablecoins for direct BoE oversight. By 2025, the UK is expected to roll out detailed rules – likely similar to the U.S. approach of requiring 1:1 backing and authorization for issuers. The BoE has also been exploring a digital pound, but said a retail CBDC, if launched, would coexist with private stablecoins, not necessarily replace them.

Asia: Divergent Approaches from Embrace to Bans

Asia presents a patchwork of stablecoin stances: some financial hubs are creating regulated environments for stablecoins, while others have banned crypto broadly, indirectly limiting stablecoin use.

Japan was an early mover in stablecoin regulation. A law effective June 2023 made it so only licensed banks, registered money transfer agents, and trust companies can issue stablecoins in Japan. The law essentially treats stablecoins as digital money, ensuring issuers have prudential oversight. It also required any foreign stablecoins sold in Japan to meet equivalent standards. As a result, throughout 2024 Japanese financial institutions started issuing their own yen-pegged stablecoins or tokens – for example, Mitsubishi UFJ Trust launched “Progmat Coin” platform for bank-issued stablecoins, and smaller banks issued tokens like JPYC (a yen stablecoin) under the new framework. This coincided with Japan’s push for cashless payments: the Bank of Japan noted cashless payment usage rose to 42.8% by 2024, and officials suggested stablecoins and a future CBDC could coexist in retail payments. So Japan’s stance is controlled openness: allow stablecoins within a strictly regulated structure, mostly via existing financial institutions.

Singapore likewise embraces fintech innovation but with guardrails. The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) in 2022 proposed guidelines that stablecoins should be fully backed by high-quality liquid assets and issuers must ensure prompt redemption (within 5 days). By 2024, MAS was finalizing rules mandating full 1:1 backing and timely redemption for stablecoins. Singapore is positioning to be a hub for regulated stablecoins in Asia – it already hosts notable projects like XSGD (Singapore dollar stablecoin) and has encouraged trials of stablecoin use in DeFi sandboxes. Many crypto companies (Circle, for instance) have Singapore entities preparing for compliance. Singapore’s approach is similar to the anticipated U.S. one, with an emphasis on quality of reserves, redemption rights, and prudential regulation.

Hong Kong has made headlines by actively seeking to become a crypto and stablecoin hub after years of caution. In Dec 2024, Hong Kong’s government introduced a draft Stablecoin Bill to establish a comprehensive licensing regime for stablecoin issuers. That bill moved swiftly: by May 2025, Hong Kong’s Legislative Council passed the Stablecoins Ordinance, setting up a system where any firm issuing a fiat-backed stablecoin or operating a stablecoin arrangement (custody, wallets etc.) targeting Hong Kong must be licensed by the HK Monetary Authority. The rules require one-to-one reserves in high-quality liquid assets, audits, and stringent capital and risk management. Interestingly, Hong Kong will allow stablecoins pegged to any fiat currency (not just HKD) under this regime – reflecting HK’s global financial center approach. Already, Standard Chartered Bank announced a partnership to launch a stablecoin pegged to the Hong Kong dollar once regulations are in place. Hong Kong regulators see this as crucial to “programmable finance” and innovation; they want a safe environment that attracts stablecoin issuers from around the world. Some Chinese banks in HK reportedly explored issuing CNH (offshore yuan) stablecoins too. The new law also addresses ancillary services – e.g., wallet providers for stablecoins will need licenses, ensuring the entire ecosystem is supervised. Hong Kong’s pivot is somewhat striking because it aligns with mainland China’s cautious stance on crypto – but Hong Kong is carving out its own regulatory path to leverage crypto finance while mitigating risks.

Mainland China, conversely, maintains a strict ban on cryptocurrency trading and stablecoins for its citizens. After outlawing crypto exchanges in 2017 and mining in 2021, China has promoted its Digital Yuan (e-CNY) central bank digital currency as the official digital money. The People’s Bank of China has made clear that private stablecoins like USDT are not legal in China. Authorities cracked down on OTC trading of USDT in 2023–2024, arresting groups involved in using Tether for capital flight and money laundering. Many Chinese OTC brokers that once facilitated USDT exchange had to cease or move operations overseas. China’s stance is that only the state-issued CBDC and regulated digital payment platforms (like Alipay, WeChat Pay) are allowed for yuan transactions. That said, Chinese individuals find workarounds – some still acquire stablecoins through Hong Kong or offshore accounts. But officially, any onshore stablecoin activity is banned and the focus is on expanding the digital yuan, which now has millions of users domestically. China’s approach exemplifies the sovereign resistance to foreign stablecoins: the government is concerned about currency substitution and capital outflows if stablecoins (especially USD-based) became popular, so it has pre-emptively blocked their usage to ensure monetary control.

Other Asian nations vary: South Korea hasn’t legalized stablecoin issuance domestically yet; it is drafting crypto laws that might address them in the context of investor protection. Meanwhile, Korean won-pegged stablecoins exist but trade mostly on offshore platforms. India is very restrictive on crypto in general (after heavy taxes and banking bans, crypto activity there is limited; stablecoins see little official use, though some Indians use USD stablecoins peer-to-peer as a dollar hedge). Thailand and Malaysia have warned against private stablecoins that mimic their currencies (Thailand outlawed a baht-backed stablecoin by Terra in 2021). On the other hand, UAE (Dubai/Abu Dhabi) have crypto-friendly regimes and would permit stablecoin issuance under their virtual asset laws – in 2024, Dubai’s VARA included stablecoins under its licensing for payment tokens. Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states are exploring CBDCs jointly, but also investing in blockchain firms (some Saudi oil deals reportedly considered using stablecoins for settlement, but nothing public yet). Israel is open to crypto innovation and saw its first bank-issued stablecoin pilot (Shekel-token by Bank Leumi) in 2023, done in a controlled test.

Broadly, many countries are following guidance from international bodies: The Financial Stability Board in July 2022 issued recommendations that stablecoins should meet equivalent standards to commercial bank money if they’re to be widely used, including prudential requirements and redemption rights. The Bank for International Settlements also emphasized stablecoins should not undermine financial stability and that robust regulation is needed, urging central banks to consider CBDCs as safer alternatives. G20 finance ministers in 2023 agreed to coordinate regulations in line with those principles. So we see a convergence: require full backing, legal clarity on redemption, and proper oversight, or else restrict stablecoin activities. Even in places allowing stablecoins, there’s a push for “same risk, same regulation” parity with traditional money.

Africa and Latin America: Adoption Outpacing Regulation

In regions like Africa and Latin America, stablecoin usage has surged faster than regulatory regimes have developed. As noted, countries such as Nigeria, Kenya, Argentina, and Brazil have high stablecoin adoption driven by economics. Regulators are now catching up:

In Africa, few countries have specific stablecoin regulations yet, but some are integrating crypto into existing frameworks. Nigeria – despite being a world leader in stablecoin use – officially has a somewhat paradoxical stance: the central bank banned banks from servicing crypto exchanges in 2021, pushing crypto trading into informal channels. It launched an eNaira CBDC to provide a government alternative, but uptake has been low compared to stablecoins. However, Nigeria’s Securities and Exchange Commission in 2022 released rules treating crypto assets as securities or digital assets if they qualify, and hinted that stablecoins might be recognized as investment instruments or e-money equivalents in future rules. By 2025, seeing the widespread public adoption, Nigerian regulators are reportedly exploring a framework to legitimize stablecoins for payment and remittance, with appropriate KYC/AML controls.

They realize outright bans haven’t stopped usage, so better to regulate and harness it. Other African regulators, like South Africa’s FSCA, have classified crypto assets (including stablecoins) as financial products under existing law, meaning providers must get licensed. South Africa has been proactive: it expects to address stablecoins specifically, given its institutions’ interest (Absa bank, as mentioned, is preparing for stablecoin-focused services in anticipation of new rules). Kenya and Ghana central banks have issued cautionary notices but also set up innovation sandboxes that might include stablecoin-based remittance solutions.

Generally, African regulators are mindful of both the huge financial inclusion upside of stablecoins and the risks (currency substitution, if everyone uses USDT over local currency, and illicit flows). The approach likely will be to formalize stablecoin remittances via fintech licensing and require local reserves or guarantees for stablecoins touching local currency conversions.

In Latin America, several countries are moving toward regulation. Brazil in December 2022 passed a law bringing cryptocurrencies under the supervision of its central bank and securities regulator. While the law didn’t single out stablecoins, the Central Bank of Brazil has indicated that if a stablecoin is widely used for payments, it could be treated as a payment scheme under its oversight. Brazil’s central bank is also piloting its own digital currency (real digital), but simultaneously, Brazilian fintechs are using USDC/USDT for international transfers. We might see Brazil formalize stablecoin usage via its robust payment system regulations (perhaps requiring registration or partnering with licensed payment institutions).

Argentina, facing rampant inflation, has not banned stablecoins – in fact many Argentines transact in USDT – but the government in 2023 considered whether to regulate crypto to prevent capital flight. No comprehensive crypto law has passed there yet, partly due to political instability, but any attempt to tighten currency controls could impact crypto usage. So far, it remains a gray zone with high adoption. Mexico had a 2018 Fintech Law that defined electronic payment tokens (which could include stablecoins) – one major Mexican bank (Banco Azteca) even considered launching a peso stablecoin, though it hasn’t happened publicly.

Elsewhere in LatAm: Colombia and Chile are studying crypto regulations; Venezuela ironically launched an oil-backed “Petro” state crypto that failed, while people use U.S. dollars and USDT widely on the street due to hyperinflation. El Salvador, famous for adopting Bitcoin as legal tender, has no specific stablecoin law, but stablecoins are commonly used there too as dollars on blockchain. In sum, Latin America’s approach is still evolving, with Brazil likely to lead with a clear regulatory path integrating stablecoins into its financial system, while others either tolerate use or are in early stages of rulemaking.

Key Regulatory Themes and Challenges

Across jurisdictions, some common themes and challenges have emerged in regulating stablecoins:

• Reserve Quality and Transparency: Regulators universally emphasize that stablecoins must be fully reserved with high-quality assets. The push is for frequent disclosures or audits of reserves to ensure tokens are truly backed. Lack of transparency (as in Tether’s case historically) has been a sticking point; new laws will force issuers to open their books. A related debate is who holds the reserves – some proposals require reserves be kept at insured banks or even at the central bank (e.g., some suggest stablecoin issuers park cash at the Fed like narrow banks). Most laws so far allow Treasuries and cash in commercial banks. Ensuring the reserves aren’t pledged elsewhere or leveraged is key to preventing the equivalent of a bank run.

• Redemption Rights: A core regulatory principle is that stablecoin holders should be able to redeem tokens for the underlying fiat easily (usually directly with the issuer or through authorized participants). Both U.S. and EU rules stress prompt redemption at par. This gives users confidence and also legally clarifies that the token is not a security investment (since it’s just a representation of a stored fiat value).

• Licensing and Supervision: Regulators are deciding which agencies oversee stablecoin issuers. Banking regulators are heavily involved given stablecoins’ money-like nature. For instance, in the U.S. the Act would involve bank regulators (OCC, Fed, FDIC) for licensing stablecoin issuers akin to banks. In the EU, EBA oversees large issuers under MiCA. Supervision will include compliance with AML/CFT (anti-money laundering and counter-terror finance) rules, cybersecurity standards, fit-and-proper checks for management, etc., similar to other financial institutions.

• Addressing Illicit Activity: Authorities worry that stablecoins can be used for money laundering, sanctions evasion or fraud due to pseudonymous transfers. While on one hand stablecoins are traceable on blockchains, the ease of global transfer raises flags. The U.S. Treasury and others advocate for strict AML controls on stablecoin issuers and intermediaries. That means exchanges and wallet providers must conduct KYC (know-your-customer) and monitor transactions. There’s also discussion of technical solutions: e.g., blacklisting capability (Circle routinely freezes blacklisted USDC addresses when requested by law enforcement). Tether too has complied with some freeze orders. However, fully decentralized stablecoins like DAI present a challenge as they lack a central blacklist authority – regulators may focus on regulating the gateways (exchanges, etc.) in those cases. The industry and regulators are working on balancing privacy vs. compliance in stablecoin transactions. Travel Rule (sending sender/recipient data with transactions above thresholds) is one measure being implemented via crypto providers.

• Foreign Stability and Monetary Policy: Central bankers worry that if a stablecoin not denominated in local currency becomes widespread, it could diminish the effectiveness of local monetary policy (a form of “crypto dollarization”). This is why, for example, Europe’s MiCA included usage caps for non-euro stablecoins in payments, and why some emerging economies are leery of USD stablecoins proliferating. Regulators in smaller economies might consider requiring FX controls on stablecoins – for instance, mandating that local transactions use local-currency stablecoins or limiting conversion of local fiat to foreign stablecoins. We haven’t seen strict measures yet beyond China’s outright ban, but it remains a consideration in policy discussions, especially as stablecoin use grows in countries with weak currencies.

• Integration with Traditional Finance: As stablecoins become more regulated, they are likely to integrate with traditional payment systems. One question is insurance and investor protections. U.S. law may not initially insure stablecoin holdings (like deposits), but by requiring issuers to be insured depository institutions, it indirectly provides some safety net (though likely only for cash portions, not for tokens themselves). There’s also talk of whether stablecoin users should have access to central bank lender-of-last-resort facilities via the issuer – effectively treating them like banks. Most central banks are not keen on that yet, but it could evolve if stablecoins become systemically important. The Standard Chartered projection that the stablecoin market could reach $2 trillion by 2028 if U.S. law passesshows they could indeed become systemically relevant.

• Competitive and Technological Issues: Regulators must also watch how competition plays out. If one or two private stablecoins dominate global payments, that raises questions of market power and resilience. That is partly why many central banks are simultaneously exploring CBDCs (central bank digital currencies) – to provide a sovereign alternative. The interplay between CBDCs and stablecoins is complex: some see them coexisting (stablecoins innovating in niche areas, CBDC as basic public infrastructure), others see CBDCs possibly reducing the need for stablecoins. The market outcome isn’t clear, and regulators are carefully evaluating pilot results from projects like China’s e-CNY, Europe’s digital euro initiative, etc.

Finally, regulatory coherence internationally is a challenge. If rules differ greatly, stablecoin activity could migrate to the most permissive jurisdictions (or remain offshore). There are efforts to harmonize standards through bodies like IOSCO and the BIS. So far, the overall direction is aligned: full backing, robust oversight. One notable stance: International Monetary Fund has urged emerging markets not to adopt foreign stablecoins too quickly without proper frameworks, warning of potential instability. Instead, the IMF suggests developing regional solutions or strengthening macro policies, but acknowledges stablecoins can have benefits if well-regulated.

Outlook: Stablecoins at a Crossroads

Stablecoins have swiftly gone from an experiment to a pervasive phenomenon in finance. As of 2025, they sit at a crossroads of greater adoption and greater regulation. On the current trajectory, stablecoins are poised to play an increasingly significant role in global financial systems, provided the outstanding challenges are addressed.

In the near-term future, we can expect:

• Wider Mainstream Use: With major payment processors like Fiserv and fintech firms on board, using stablecoins could become as commonplace as using PayPal or credit cards, with users perhaps unaware of the blockchain backend. For example, a customer might pay a merchant in stablecoins via a wallet, and the merchant instantly converts to local currency – all in-app, abstracted away. Visa and MasterCard integrating stablecoin settlement in their networks could significantly boost usage volume, bringing billions of everyday transactions onto stablecoin rails (albeit behind the scenes).

• Proliferation of New Stablecoins: If regulations provide clarity, more entities will launch stablecoins. We may see large banks issuing their own branded stablecoins (e.g., Citi or HSBC coin) for clients, or consortium-based stablecoins (perhaps a Utility Settlement Coin used by multiple banks). Non-bank companies might issue stablecoins tied to loyalty systems or specific ecosystems (imagine an Amazon stablecoin for marketplace transactions). Regulators will have to monitor these and ensure a level playing field. The GENIUS Act’s passage is expected to spark such innovation in the U.S..

• Interoperability Solutions: Currently, stablecoin liquidity is fragmented across different blockchains (Ethereum, Tron, Solana, etc.). Efforts are underway to enhance interoperability – for instance, cross-chain bridges and projects like Chainlink’s CCIP that allow stablecoins to move across chains securely. This could alleviate concerns that using stablecoins on one network traps liquidity. It also means regulators will pay attention to bridges (since an exploit there could affect a stablecoin’s backing indirectly, if tokens get lost or duplicated).

• Higher Interest Rates and Business Models: One reason stablecoin issuers like Tether and Circle thrived in 2023–2024 was the high interest on reserves – effectively, they earn 5% on tens of billions of dollars in Treasuries. This not only made them profitable but also introduced questions: should stablecoin users benefit from that interest? So far, most issuers keep the interest (funding operations or profit); Maker’s DAI as noted shares some via the DAI Savings Rate. In a competitive market, we might see issuers start offering interest or rewards to users to attract them. However, regulators in some jurisdictions (EU’s MiCA) explicitly ban paying interest on stablecoin balances, to prevent them from turning into investment products akin to bank accounts. The outcome could shape how attractive stablecoins are for savings versus just transactions.

• Integration with CBDCs: As central bank digital currencies roll out (the EU might launch a digital euro later this decade; the Fed is researching a digital dollar), there will be interplay. Some envision a two-tier system: central banks supply CBDC to regulated intermediaries, who then distribute it or even use it to back their stablecoins (for instance, a fully collateralized stablecoin 100% backed by CBDC could exist – giving the benefits of private innovation with the solidity of central bank money). Hong Kong’s mention of stablecoins alongside possible e-HKD is one example. How exactly CBDCs and stablecoins coexist remains to be seen, but they aren’t necessarily mutually exclusive. What’s clear is central banks want to keep final control over monetary sovereignty, meaning stablecoins will likely be anchored by frameworks that keep them tethered (no pun intended) to central bank money value and redemption.

• Addressing Systemic Risk: If stablecoins continue to grow, regulators might consider designating some as systemically important (like how certain money market funds or clearinghouses are deemed SIFIs). This could bring even stricter oversight, Fed monitoring, and requirements like access to emergency liquidity. The mention by State Street’s CEO that stablecoins might “outpace Treasury supply growth” raising the need for new buyers shows even the traditional market is eyeing their macro impact. Conversely, their growth may prove beneficial – providing a constant demand for government debt and innovation in payments.

• Technology Improvements: Ongoing tech developments aim to make stablecoins more efficient. Layer-2 scaling (e.g., Optimistic or ZK rollups on Ethereum) can cut transaction costs dramatically, making microtransactions feasible. There’s also exploration of privacy features (since all transactions being public on a blockchain has drawbacks) – zero-knowledge proofs might allow private stablecoin transactions that still comply with regulatory checks. The balance between privacy and compliance will be a key debate: too much anonymity raises regulator alarm; too little privacy and users may not want every payment traceable. Solutions like programmable privacy (where amounts are hidden but can be revealed to regulators with a warrant, etc.) might emerge for stablecoins.

• Global Coordination or Competition: Countries like France, Japan and others in G7 have advocated for international standards for stablecoins, especially after Facebook’s Libra plans. We may see treaties or agreements on information sharing regarding stablecoin flows, given their cross-border nature. On the flip side, jurisdictions might compete to attract legitimate stablecoin businesses (as Hong Kong, Singapore, and UAE are doing) by offering clear rules and fintech-friendly environments. This competition could benefit innovation if it doesn’t lead to a regulatory race to the bottom. So far, competition is in quality of regulation rather than laxity, which is a healthy sign.

Challenges remain: regulatory arbitrage (some issuer might operate from a lightly regulated haven – though users/traders may then view it as higher risk), smart contract hacks (a bug in a stablecoin’s code or related DeFi contract could still cause losses, so audits and insurance mechanisms are needed), and user education (many mainstream users still don’t understand stablecoins or could be duped by scams claiming to be “stablecoin” offerings). Regulatory clarity helps legitimate providers but doesn’t eliminate bad actors entirely – enforcement against fraudulent stablecoins (e.g., ones that claim backing but have none) will continue to be important.

In conclusion, stablecoins in 2025 are at an inflection point. Adoption is at an all-time high, fulfilling use cases from trading to remittances, and even influencing traditional money markets. At the same time, regulators worldwide are implementing the first comprehensive rules, aiming to harness the innovation while curbing the risks. The coming years will show how well these regulatory frameworks work in practice: ideally, they will bring greater stability and trust, encouraging mainstream institutions and users to engage more with stablecoins. As that happens, stablecoins could truly realize their potential to make global transactions faster, cheaper, and more accessible.

Experts note that achieving this will require cooperation between the crypto industry and regulators. “Clear and uniform rules can help expand the use of stablecoins,” a World Economic Forum report observed, suggesting that more regulatory clarity could open the door to additional reputable issuers entering the space. We are already seeing that play out with fintech and bank entrants. If all goes well, stablecoins might eventually fade into the background of everyday finance – known simply as fast digital dollars/euros/etc. that people use without a second thought. Despite challenges, stablecoins appear poised to remain a permanent and growing part of the financial landscape, blending the trust of traditional currency with the efficiency of modern technology. As one industry CEO put it, “We see stablecoins as a game-changer… providing a faster, more affordable alternative to traditional payments”. The world’s financial regulators are betting that with proper guardrails, that game change can be a positive one – and the stablecoin surge can be managed for the benefit of consumers and economies worldwide.